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<div>[[Image:Very Rev. Fr. Raphael.jpg|right|frame|Source: ''The Daily Gleaner'' (Kingston, Jamaica). [[July 22]], 1913.]]<br />
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Very Rev. '''Raphael Morgan''' (born '''Robert Josias Morgan''', 186x/187x - 19xx) was a Jamaican-American priest of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], designated as ''"Priest-Apostolic"'' ([[Greek]]: Ιεραποστολος) to America and the West Indies,<ref>According to Fr. Raphael's biography in the ''Who's Who of the Colored Race'', 1915, after he was ordained to the priesthood:<br><br />
:"...at a special service he was duly commissioned Priest-Apostolic from the Ecumenical and Patriarchal Throne of Constantinople to America and the West Indies."<br><br />
(Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. p.226.)</ref><ref>Robert A. Hill, Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''Letter Denouncing Marcus Garvey.'' In: '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].''' University of California Press, 1983. pg.197.</ref> later the founder and superior of the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha'',<ref name="Order">The ''"Order of...",'' could be a number of things; it could be 1) an honorarium bestowed upon him for service done in the Church; or 2) an entitling which lets others know of his special mission in the Patriarchate/Diocese etc.; it could also 3) refer to a Society of monastics which transcends, because of rare circumstances, physical location; in addition, it is also possible that this was 4) a monastic brotherhood formed for Black Orthodox Christians, since Morgan was referred to as the ''“founder and superior”'' of that religious fraternity, although the formation of formal monastic orders is not traditionally practiced in the Orthodox tradition. The Orthodox Church does not have separate Orders (Franciscan, Carmelite etc.) each with an entirely independent rule/ethos of life. Despite being mentioned on many occasions in association with Morgan, no other material has ever been found on the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha''.</ref> and thought to be the first Black Orthodox clergyman in America. <br />
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He spoke broken [[Greek language|Greek]], and therefore served mostly in English. Having recently been discovered, his life has garnered great interest, but much of his life still remains shrouded in mystery. <br />
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Fr. Raphael is said to have resided all over the world, including: "in Palestine, Syria, Joppa, [[Greece]], [[Cyprus]], [[Mytilene]], [[Chios]], Sicily, [[Crete]], Egypt, Russia, Ottoman Turkey, Austria, Germany, England, France, Scandinavia, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Switzerland, Bermuda, and the United States."<ref name=MATHER>Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. pp.226-227.</ref><br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Robert Josias Morgan was born in Chapelton, Clarence Parish, Jamaica either in the late 1860s or early 1870s to Robert Josias and Mary Ann (née Johnson) Morgan. He was born six months after his father's death, and named in his honour. Robert was raised in the Anglican tradition and was received elementary schooling locally.<ref name="MATHER"/> <br />
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In his teenage years he travelled to Colón, Panama, then to British Honduras, back to Jamaica, and then to the United States. He became a minister in the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) and left as a missionary to Germany.<ref name="MATHER"/><br />
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===Period in the Church of England===<br />
He then came to England, where he joined the Church of England and was sent to Sierra Leona to the Church Missionary Society Grammar School at Freetown. He studied Greek, Latin, and other higher-level subjects. Being poor, Robert had to work to support himself, and worked as second master of a public school in Freetown. He took course in the Church Missionary Society College at Fourah Bay in Freetown, and was soon appointed a missionary teacher and lay-reader by the Episcopalian Bishop of Liberia, the Right Reverend Samuel David Ferguson.<ref name="MATHER"/> Robert later said during a trip to Jamaica in 1901 that he served five years in West Africa, of which he spent three years in missionary work.<ref name="West Africa">''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html West Africa]''. October 9, 1901. p.7.</ref><br />
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After this Robert again visited England for private study, and then travelled to America to work amongst the African-American community as a lay-reader. He was accepted as a Postulant and as candidate for the Episcopalian deaconate. During the canonical period of waiting period before ordination, Robert again returned to England to study at Saint Aidan's Theological College in Birkenhead, and finally prosecuted his studies at King's College of the University of London.<ref name="MATHER"/> The colleges however do not contain records of his attendance.<ref>It is possible that he academically audited the courses, attending the classes without receiving a formal grade.</ref> <br />
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===Period in the Episcopal Church===<br />
He returned to America, and on [[June 20]], [[1895]] was ordained as deacon<ref name="note">Fr. Raphael's name is given on a list of Black Episcopal ordinations as follows: ''"1895: Robert Josias Morgan, d. June 20, Coleman; deposed; went abroad and was made a priest in Greek Church."'' (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> by the Rt. Rev. Leighton Coleman,<ref>The ''New York Times''. ''[http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D0DE1DF1639E333A25756C1A9649D946697D6CF Bishop Coleman of Delaware Dies].'' Sunday December 15, 1907. Page 13. (Obituary)</ref> Bishop of the Episcopalian Diocese of Delaware, and a well-known opponent of racism. Robert was appointed honorary curate in St Matthews' Church in Wilminton, Delaware, serving there from 1896 to 1897,<ref name=WHITE>White, Gavin. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Episcopal Church.'' In: Randall K. Burkett and Richard Newman (Eds.). '''Black Apostles: Afro-American Clergy Confront the Twentieth Century.''' G. K. Hall, 1978. pp.151-180.</ref> and procured a job as a teacher for a few public schools in Delaware. From 1897 he served at Charleston, West Virginia.<ref name="WHITE"/><br />
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In 1898, the deacon Robert (Rev. R.J. Morgan) was transferred to the Missionary Jurisdiction of Ashville (now in the Diocese of Western North Carolina). By 1899 he was listed as being assistant minister at [http://www.diocesewnc.org/index.php?content=300.00&city=Morganton St. Stephen's Chapel] in Morganton, North Carolina, and [http://www.asecnc.org/StCyp.html St. Cyprian's Church] in Lincolnton, North Carolina.<ref>Lumsden, Joy, MA (Cantab), PhD (UWI). ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Father Raphael: His Background and Career].'' September 29, 2007.</ref><ref name="note">St. Cyprian's Episcopal Church was established in 1886. The church once stood on West Church in Lincolnton. The property consisted of a church, a parsonage, and a building used as a school. The church was torn down during the 1970's. The <br />
church remained primarily black and was not integrated until 1979. (Jason L. Harpe. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=UJx5c2FRfosC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false Lincoln County Revisited].'' Illustrated. Arcadia Publishing, 2003. pg.18.)</ref><br />
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In 1901-1902 Rev. R. J. Morgan made a visit to his homeland Jamaica. In October 1901 he gave an address to the Jamaica Church Missionary Union, on West Africa and mission work.<ref name="West Africa"/> He also gave a lecture in Port Maria, Jamaica in October 1902, entitled ''"Africa - lts people, Tribes, Idolatry, Customs."''<ref>''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html Port Maria: A Lecture]''. October 7, 1902. p.29.</ref><br />
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From 1902 to 1905 Deacon Morgan served at Richmond, Virginia; in 1905 at Nashville, Tennessee; and by 1906 at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania with his address care of the ''Church of the Crucifixion''.<ref name="WHITE"/> <br />
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At some point during this period he joined an off-shoot of the Episcopalian Church, known as the ''"American Catholic Church"'' (''ACC''), a sect founded by Joseph René Vilatte.<ref name="note">The ''"American Catholic Church"'' (ACC) included the jurisdictions and groups which had come out of [[w:Joseph René Vilatte|Joseph René Vilatte's]] Episcopal ministry or were under his oversight. Among them were French and English speaking constituencies, and Polish and Italian ordinariates. The ACC began on August 20, 1894, at a synod held in Cleveland, Ohio, where Polish-speaking parishes joined the jurisdiction of Bishop Vilatte, however the ACC was actually incorporated in July 1915.</ref> He is listed in the records of the Episcopal Church of the USA as late as 1908, when he was suspended from ministry on the allegations of abandoning his post.<br />
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==Orthodoxy==<br />
===Trip to Russia===<br />
By the turn of the 20th century, Robert seriously began to question his faith, and began intensive study of Anglicanism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy over a three year period, to discover what he felt was the true religion. He concluded that the Orthodox Church was "the pillar and ground of truth", resigned from the Episcopalian Church, and embarked on an extensive trip abroad beginning in the Russian Empire in [[1904]].<ref name="MATHER"/><br />
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Once there, Robert visited various monasteries and churches, including sites in Odessa, St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kiev, soon becoming quite the sensation. Sundry periodicals began publishing pictures and articles on him, and soon Robert became the Special Guest of the Tsar. He was allowed to be present for the anniversary celebrations of Nicholas II's coronation, and the memorial service said for the repose of the soul of the late Emperor Alexander III.<ref>''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id3.html Priest's Visit: Father Raphael of Greek Orthodox Church: His Extensive Travels].'' July 22, 1913.</ref><br />
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Leaving Russia, Robert traveled Turkey, [[Cyprus]], and the Holy Land, returning to America and writing an article to the ''Russian-American Orthodox Messenger'' (''Vestnik'') in 1904 about his experience in Russia. In this open letter, Morgan expressed hope that the Anglican Church could unite with the Orthodox Churches, clearly moved by his experience in Russia.<ref>Upon Morgan's departure from Russia, he wrote a letter, which was reprinted in the October/November 1904 English supplement to the ''Vestnik'' (Russian Orthodox American Messenger), the official publication of the Russian Archdiocese in America. Here is the text of that letter:<br><br />
:I, Robert Josias Morgan, a legally consecrated cleric of the American Episcopal Church, find it necessary to make it publicly known, that I am not a Bishop, as it was announced in some magazines and daily papers…<br><br />
:… I am not a [[Bishop]], but a legally consecrated [[deacon]]. I came to Russia in no way to represent anything, and I was not sent by anybody. I came as a simple tourist, chiefly with the object to see the churches and the monasteries of this country, to enjoy the ritual and the service of the holy Orthodox Church, about which I heard so much abroad. And I am perfectly satisfied with everything I saw and witnessed.<br><br />
:The piety and the fear of God amongst the Russian clergy, both superior and lower, and of the lay people in general are too great to be spoken of. I like Russia, and as to the people I have simply grown to love them for their gentleness, their politeness, their amiability and kindness. It would seem as if the Christian religion penetrated the whole life of the people. This can be observed both in the private home life and the social life. You have but to go to Church in this country, and you immediately see, that there is nothing too valuable for the people to be offered to God. Note how they pray, how patiently they stand through the long Church services…<br><br />
:Now, having spent here about a month, I leave your country with a feeling of profound gratitude and take back to North America all the good impressions I received here. And when there I shall speak boldly and loudly about the brotherly feelings entertained here in the bosom of the holy Orthodox Church towards its Anglican sister of North America, and about the prayers which are offered here daily for the union of all the Catholic Christendom.<br><br />
:My constant humble prayer is for the union of all Churches, and especially the union of the Anglican faith with the Orthodox Church of Russia. I solicited the Metropolitans and the Bishops to grant me their blessing in regard to this prayer and obtained it. Now I pray daily and eagerly for a better mutual understanding between the character and their union. God grant a blessing to this cause and a hearing to our prayers and supplications. Let us solicit the prayers of the Saints. Let us seek the intercession of the holy Mother of God. Virgin Mary, pray for us!<br><br />
:In conclusion I must say, that my stay in Russia did me personally much good: I feel now firmer and stronger spiritually than I did before I came.<br><br />
:God bless the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of this country! God bless the Emperor and all the reigning family! God grant them a long life, peace and prosperity!<br><br />
:I am sincerely yours in God and in the name of Mary,<br><br />
:Robert Josias Morgan.<br><br />
(Matthew Namee. ''"[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?cat=58 Robert Josias Morgan visits Russia, 1904]."'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Chrisitan History in the Americas). September 15, 2009.)</ref> People of African descent were generally well-received within the Russian Empire, Morgan believed. Abram Hannibal had served under Emperor Peter the Great, and rose to lieutenant general in the Russian Army. Visiting artists, foreign service officials, and athletes, such as famous horse jockey Jimmy Winkfield, were likewise welcomed. With his experience of Russia and Russian Orthodoxy fresh in his mind, Morgan returned to the United States and continued his spiritual quest.<ref name=Oliver>Fr. Oliver Herbel. ''Morgan, Raphael.'' '''[http://www.mywire.com/a/African-American-National-Biography/Morgan-Raphael/9463563?&pbl=27 The African American National Biography]''' at '''mywire.com'''. 1-Jan-2008.</ref><br />
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===Study and Trip to Ecumenical Patriarchate===<br />
For another three years, Robert studied under Greek priests for his baptism,<ref name="MATHER"/> eventually deciding to seek entry and ordination in the Greek Orthodox Church. In January of 1906, he is documented as ''assisting'' in the Christmas Divine Liturgy.<ref>The ''Philadelphia Inquirer'' reported on [[January 8]], [[1906]], that ''“Rev. R.J. Morgan of the American Catholic Church, an off-shoot of the Protestant Episcopal Church, assisted.”''</ref> In [[1907]] the Philadephia Greek community referred Robert to the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] in [[Constantinople]] armed with two letters of support. One was a recommendation from Fr. Demetrios Petrides, the Greek priest then serving the Philadelphia community, dated [[18 June]] [[1907]], who described Morgan as a man sincerely coming into Orthodoxy after long and diligent study, and recommending his baptism and ordination into the priesthood. The second letter of support was from the "Ecclesiastical Committee" of the Philadelphia Greek Orthodox Church, stating he could serve as an assistant priest if he failed to form a separate Orthodox parish among his fellow Black Americans.<ref>Summaries of the two letters are given in the Synodal Minutes of [[19 July]] [[1907]], presided over by Patriarch Joachim III of Constantinople, who introduced the subject of Morgan's baptism and ordination. As is stated in the second letter, Morgan's goal was to establish an Orthodox community of Blacks (''' ''"...να πηξη ιδιαν ορθοδοξον κοινοτητα μεταξυ των εν Αμερικη ομοφυλων αυτου Νιγρητων..."'' ''').</ref><br />
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In [[Constantinople]], Robert was interviewed by [[Metropolitan]] Joachim (Phoropoulos) of Pelagonia, one of the few bishops of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] that could speak English and among the most learned of the Constantinopolitan hierarchs of that time. Metropolitan Joachim examined Robert, noting that he had a ''"deep knowledge of the teachings of the Orthodox Church",'' and that he also had a certificate from the President of the Methodist Community, duly notarized, stating that he was a man ''"of high calling and of a religious life".''<ref name=MANOLIS>Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.464-480.</ref> Citing the Biblical exhortation ''"...the one who comes to Me I will certainly not cast out"'' (John 6:37), the Metropolitan concluded that Robert should be baptised, chrismated, ordained, and sent back to America in order to ''"carry the light of the Orthodox faith among his racial brothers".'' <br />
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===Baptism and Ordination===<br />
On Friday [[August 2]], [[1907]] the Holy Synod approved that the Baptism take place the following Sunday in the ''Church of the Lifegiving Source'' at the Patriarchal Monastery at Valoukli, in Constantinople.<ref>The Patriarchal Monastery at Valoukli is where the cemetery with the graves of the Patriarchs is found.</ref> Metropolitan Joachim (Phoropoulos) of Pelagonia was to officiate at the sacrament, and the sponsor was to be Bishop Leontios (Liverios) of Theodoroupolis, Abbott of the Monastery at Valoukli. On Sunday [[August 4]], [[1907]], Robert was baptised "Raphael" before 3000 people;<ref name="MATHER"/> subsequently he was ordained a [[deacon]] on [[August 12]], [[1907]] by Metropolitan Joachim; and finally ordained a [[priest]] on the feast of the [[Dormition of the Theotokos]], [[August 15]], [[1907]].<ref>In a letter from the Chief Archivist of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, dated April 4, 1973, it was confirmed that the records of the Patriarchate show that Morgan was baptized and renamed "Raphael". (Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.467.)</ref> According to the contemporary Uniate periodical ''L'Echo d' Orient'', which sarcastically described Morgan's Baptism of triple immerson, the Metropolitan conducted the sacraments of Baptism and Ordination in the English language, following which Fr. Raphael chanted the Divine Liturgy in English.<ref>''Une Conquete du Patriarcat Oecumenique.'' ''' ''Echos d'Orient'' '''. Vol. XI. No.68, 1908, pp.55-56.</ref> Fr. Raphael Morgan's conversion to the Greek Orthodox Church made him the first African American Orthodox priest. <br />
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Fr. Raphael was sent back to America with vestments, a cross, and 20 pounds sterling for his traveling expenses. He was allowed to hear confessions, but denied Holy Chrism and an antimension, presumably to attach his missionary ministry to the Philadelphia church. The minutes of the Holy Synod from [[October 2]], [[1907]], made it clear in fact that Fr. Raphael was to be under the jurisdiction of Rev. Petrides of Philadelphia, until such time as he had been trained in liturgics and was able to establish a separate Orthodox parish.<ref name="MANOLIS"/><br />
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===Return to America===<br />
Ellis Island records indicate the arrival in New York from Naples, Italy, of the priest, Raffaele Morgan, in December 1907.<ref>Lumsden, Joy. ''[http://jamaicanhistorymonth2007.moonfruit.com/#/father-raphael/4520858082 Robert Josias Morgan, aka Father Raphael].'' '''Jamaican History Month 2007.''' February 16, 2007.</ref> Once home, Fr. Raphael baptized his wife and children in the Orthodox Church. This is noted in the minutes of the Holy Synod of February 9, 1908, which acknowledges receipt of a communication from Fr. Raphael.<br />
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The last mention of Fr. Raphael in Patriarchal records is in the minutes of the Holy Synod of [[November 4]], [[1908]], which cite a letter from Fr. Raphael recommending an Anglican priest of Philadelphia, named "A.C.V. Cartier",<ref>A.C.V. Cartier was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate by Bishop Charles Quintard in 1895, and ordained to the Episcopal priesthood in the same year by Bishop Quintard. (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> as a candidate for conversion to Orthodoxy and ordination as a priest. Cartier was rector of the [http://www.aecst.org/home.htm African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas], in Philadelphia, from 1906-12.<ref>George Alexander McGuire was rector of The African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas in Philadelphia from 1902-05. He was succeeded as rector by A.C.V. Cartier (1906-12), the man whom Morgan recommended to the Ecumenical Patriarchate for Orthodox ordination.</ref> Saint Thomas' served the African American elite of Philadelphia and was one of the most prestigious congregations in African American Christianity, having been started in 1794 by Absalom Jones, one of the founders, together with Richard Allen, of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.<ref name=Martin>Tony Martin. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004. p.776.</ref> According to the letter, Cartier desired as an Orthodox priest to undertake missionary work among his fellow blacks. Due to the fact that the jurisdiction over the Greek Church of the diaspora had been ceded by the Ecumenical Patriarchate to the Church of Greece in 1908, the request was forwarded there. However according to Greek-American historian Paul G. Manolis, a search of the Archives of the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece did not turn up any correspondence with Fr. Raphael. His letter about A.C.V. Cartier is the only indication we have from Church records of his missionary efforts among his people.<ref name="MANOLIS"/><br />
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In [[1909]], his wife filed for divorce, on the alleged charges of cruelty and failure to support their children. She left with their son Cyril to Delaware County, where she remarried.<br />
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===Monastic Tonsure===<br />
In [[1911]] Fr. Raphael sailed to [[Cyprus]], presumably to be tonsured a hieromonk. Possibly somewhere around this time, he founded the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha'' (O.C.G.).<ref name="Order"/> However, Fr. Oliver Herbel (AOC) has suggested that in 1911 Fr. Raphael was tonsured in Athens.<ref>Fr. Oliver Herbel (AOC). ''[http://www.ocanews.org/Herbeljurisdiction4.22.09.html Jurisdictional Disunity and the Russian Mission].'' '''Orthodox Christians for Accountability'''. April 22, 2009.</ref> As is noted above however, the Archives of the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece contain no information about Fr. Raphael.<br />
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===Lecture Tour in Jamaica===<br />
The ''Jamaica Times'' article of [[April 26]], [[1913]], wrote that Fr. Raphael was headquartered at Philadelphia where he wanted to build a chapel for his missionary efforts, that he had recently visited Europe to collect funds to this end, and had the intention of extending his work to the West Indies.<ref>''The Jamaica Times''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Only Negro Who is a Greek Priest].'' April 26, 1913.</ref><br />
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Near the end of [[1913]], Fr. Raphael visited his homeland of Jamaica, staying for several months until sometime the next year. While there, he met a group of Syrians, who were complaining of a lack of Orthodox churches on the island. Fr. Raphael did his best to contact the Syrian-American diocese of the Russian church, writing to St. Raphael of Brooklyn, but as most of their descendants are now communicants in the Episcopal Church, this presumably came to no avail. In December, a Russian warship came to port, and he concelebrated the Divine Liturgy with the sailors, their chaplain, and his new-found Syrians.<br />
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The main work of his visit, however, was a lecture circuit that he ran throughout Jamaica. Citing a lack of Orthodox churches, Fr. Raphael would speak at churches of various denomination. The topics would usually cover his travels, the Holy Land, and Holy Orthodoxy. At some point, he even made it to his hometown of Chapelton, to whom he remarked of his name change, ''"I will always be Robert to you".''<ref>''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id6.html Gives Lecture. Fr. Raphael Talks of His Travels Abroad.]'' August 15, 1913.</ref><br />
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According to the ''Daily Gleaner'' edition of [[November 2]], [[1914]], Fr. Raphael had just set sail back for America to start mission work under his Faith.<ref>''"Father Raphael, Priest of the Greek Orthodox Church, who has been in the island for some time, sailed for America last week. It is understood that he will return shortly to his native land and start mission work under his Faith. As is well known, the seat of the Greek Church to which father Raphael belongs is not far from the theatre of war, so there is no hope of the Father returning to his Mother Church in a hurry. Father Raphael is a native of Clarendon."'' (''The Daily Gleaner.'' November 2, 1914. p.13.)</ref><br />
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===Last Known Records===<br />
In [[1916]] Fr. Raphael was still in Philadelphia, having made the Philadelphia Greek parish his base of operations.<ref>Namee, Matthew. ''[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?p=244 The First Black Orthodox Priest in America].'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Christian History in the Americas). July 15, 2009.</ref> The last documentation of Fr. Raphael comes from a letter to the ''Daily Gleaner'' on [[October 4]], [[1916]]. Representing a group of about a dozen other like-minded Jamaican-Americans, he wrote in to protest the lectures of Black Nationalist Marcus Garvey.<ref>Fr. Raphael signed the letter as ''' ''"Father Raphael, O.C.G., Priest-Apostolic, the Greek-Orthodox Catholic Church."'' '''The full text of the signed letter is printed in:<br>Robert A. Hill, Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''Letter Denouncing Marcus Garvey.'' In: '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].''' University of California Press, 1983. pp.196-197.</ref> Garvey's views on Jamaica, they felt, were damaging to both the reputation of their homeland and its people, enumerating several objections to Garvey's stated preference for the prejudice of the American whites over that of English whites.<ref name=Oliver/> Garvey's response came ten days later, in which he called the letter a conspiratorial fabrication meant to undermine the success and favour he had gained while in Jamaica and in the United States.<br />
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Little is known of Fr. Raphael's life after this point, except from some interviews conducted in the [[1970s]] between Greek-American historian Paul G. Manolis and surviving members of the [http://evangelismos.us/default.aspx Greek Community of the Annunciation] in Philadelphia, who recalled the black priest who was evidently a part of their community for a period of time. One elderly woman, Grammatike Kritikos Sherwin, remembered that Fr. Raphael's daughter left to attend Oxford; another parishioner, Kyriacos Biniaris, recalls that Morgan, whose hand "he kissed many times", spoke broken Greek and served with Fr. Petrides reciting the liturgy mostly in English; whilst another, a George Liacouras, recalled that after serving in Philadelphia for some years, Fr. Raphael left for Jerusalem, never to return.<ref name="MANOLIS"/> The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America has no record either of Fr. Raphael Morgan, nor of Fr. Demetrios Petrides, as the first records for the Philadelphia community in the archives only began in [[1918]].<br />
<br />
==Influence==<br />
==="Indirect Conversion of Thousands" Theory===<br />
During the ''16th Annual Ancient Christianity and African-American Conference'' in [[2009]], Matthew Namee presented a 23-minute lecture on the heretofore recently discovered life of Fr. Raphael Morgan. He postulates that even if Fr. Raphael's missionary efforts failed outside of his immediate family, he may be indirectly responsible for the conversion of thousands, via contact with Episcopal priest George Alexander McGuire (1866-1934).<br />
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Records for [http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St Philip's Episcopal Church] in Richmond, Virgina indicate that for a short while in 1901 Robert J. Morgan was listed as the Rector. However, being only a deacon, this would mean that Robert's position was only temporary, during an interregnum of sorts. The previous rector was one George Alexander McGuire.<br><br />
<br />
'''African Orthodox Church'''<br><br />
George McGuire became an associate of Marcus Garvey and his Black Nationalist UNIA movement, being appointed the first Chaplain-General of the organization at its inaugural international convention in New York in August 1920. On [[September 28]], [[1921]], he was made a bishop of the American Catholic Church by Joseph René Vilatte, and soon after founded the African Orthodox Church, a non-canonical Black Nationalist church, in the Anglican tradition. Today, it is best known for its canonisation of Jazz legend John Coltrane.<br />
<br />
Bishop George McGuire soon spread his African Orthodox Church throughout the United States, and soon even made a presence on the African continent in such countries as Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Between [[1924]]-[[1934]] McGuire built the AOC into a thriving international church. Branches were eventually established in Canada, Barbados, Cuba, South Africa, Uganda, Kenya, Miami, Chicago, Harlem, Boston, Cambridge (Massachusetts), and elsewhere. The official organ of AOC, ''The Negro Churchman,'' became an effective link for the far-flung organization.<ref name="Martin"/> However, around the time of the Second World War, the African churches were cut off from the American and in the post-war period had drifted far enough way to request and come under the omophorion of the Church of Alexandria.<br />
<br />
'''Fr. Raphael and George McGuire'''<br><br />
Namee questions whence the idea came for McGuire to form namely an ''Orthodox'' church. Fr. Raphael Morgan and George McGuire have some striking similarities, including the facts that both:<br />
* served concurrently or consecutively at [http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St Philip's Episcopal Church] in Virginia,<ref>[http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St. Philip’s Episcopal Church] of Richmond, Virginia lists Morgan as having been the rector of their parish for a short time in 1901. He is listed as the rector from “1901-April 1901.” Morgan’s predecessor at St. Philip’s was a certain “Reverend George Alexander McQuire,” who served the parish from April 1898 to November 1900.</ref> <br />
* were ordained in the Episcopal Church around the same time,<ref>Rev. Morgan was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate on [[June 20]], [[1895]], by Bishop Leighton Coleman. George McGuire was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate on [[June 29]], [[1896]] by Bishop Boyd Vincent, and to the Episcopal priesthood in 1897 by the same. (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> and <br />
* both later served in Philadelphia, each having had some contact with Rev. A.C.V. Cartier of the [http://www.aecst.org/home.htm African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas].<br />
<br />
Namee concludes that with so many coincidences, it is impossible for these two men to not have known one another; and therefore it must be from some influence - either in conversation with Fr. Raphael or through evangelism - that McGuire received his inspiration and came to know the Orthodox Church. An additional point is that Garvey already knew of Fr. Raphael when McGuire joined his organization in 1920 (since Fr. Raphael had written the letter in 1916 protesting Garvey's lectures), which makes it likely that McGuire and Garvey had discussed Morgan at some point, especially as they were interested in forming an independent African-American Church.<br />
<br />
One deterrent from this theory comes in the familiarity he had with the Orthodox Church by McGuire's ''consecrator'', Joseph René Vilatte.<ref>In his quest to obtain valid Apostolic Orders, Fr. McGuire had himself re-ordained Bishop in the ''American Catholic Church'', being consecrated on September 28, 1921, in Chicago, Illinois, by Archbishop Joseph René Vilatte, assisted by bishop Carl A. Nybladh who had been consecrated by Vilatte. However the Orthodox Church considers Villate to be an Episcopi vagantes.</ref> At various points, Vilatte come into contact with both the Russian and Syriac Orthodox Churches in a move for Catholic-Orthodox reconciliation, having even been accepted for a while by Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov) of the Aleutians, Alaska, in May of [[1891]].<br />
<br />
===Legacy===<br />
Scholar Gavin White, writing in the 1970's, states that if Morgan tried to organize an African-American Greek Orthodox church in Philadelphia, its memory has vanished, and nothing whatsoever is known about Morgan in later years. However he hastens to add that: <br />
:"...there can be no doubt that McGuire knew all about Morgan and it is very probable that he knew him personally. It is just possible that it was Morgan who first introduced McGuire to the Episcopal Church in Wilmington; it was almost certainly Morgan who introduced McGuire to the idea of Eastern episcopacy.<ref name="WHITE"/> <br />
This concurs with Matthew Namee's conclusion above, that it was Fr. Raphael who was George Alexander McGuire's inspiration to form namely an "Orthodox" church. In time the African-based portion of McGuire's ''"African Orthodox Church"'' in Kenya and Uganda, eventually did end up under the canonical jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa in 1946. And although those two churches were already upon their own set path towards full canonical Orthodoxy, McGuire was an important part of that process at one stage, and Fr. Raphael Morgan in turn was behind McGuire's inspiration to form an "Orthodox" church. In this regard, by planting the seed, it can be said that Fr. Raphael was also in some measure indirectly part of that process as well. <br />
<br />
In the end, while Fr. Raphael Morgan's work among Jamaicans in Philadelphia appears to have been transitory, nevertheless he did serve as an important precedent for current African American interest in Orthodoxy, especially that of Father [http://unexpectedjoychurch.org/administration.html Moses Berry], director of the [http://www.oaahm.org/index.html Ozarks African American Heritage Museum], who served as the priest to the [http://unexpectedjoychurch.org/ Theotokos, the “Unexpected Joy,” Orthodox Mission] (OCA) in Ash Grove, Missouri.<ref name=Oliver/><br />
<br />
==References== <br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://evangelismos.us/default.aspx Evangelismos Greek Orthodox Church], Philadelphia, PA. ''(Fr. Raphael's home parish, ca.~1905-1916)''<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
'''Contemporary Sources'''<br />
* Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922.<br />
* Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Afro-American Clergy List. Priests''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/afroamericanchur00bragiala Afro-American Church Work and Workers].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Print, 1904.<br />
* Hill, Robert A., Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].'' University of California Press, 1983. ISBN 9780520044562<br />
* Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. <br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html West Africa]''. October 9, 1901. p.7.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id3.html Priest's Visit: Father Raphael of Greek Orthodox Church: His Extensive Travels].'' July 22, 1913.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id6.html Gives Lecture. Fr. Raphael Talks of His Travels Abroad.]'' August 15, 1913.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' November 2, 1914. p.13.<br />
* ''The Jamaica Times''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Only Negro Who is a Greek Priest].'' April 26, 1913.<br />
* ''Une Conquete du Patriarcat Oecumenique.'' ''' ''Echos d'Orient'' '''. Vol. XI. No.68, 1908, pp.55-56. <br />
:(''Publication of the Roman Catholic Uniate Assumptionist Fathers, located in Chalcedon'')<br />
'''Modern Sources'''<br />
* Herbel, Fr. Oliver (AOC). ''[http://www.ocanews.org/Herbeljurisdiction4.22.09.html Jurisdictional Disunity and the Russian Mission].'' '''Orthodox Christians for Accountability'''. April 22, 2009.<br />
* Herbel, Fr. Oliver (AOC). ''Morgan, Raphael.'' '''[http://www.mywire.com/a/African-American-National-Biography/Morgan-Raphael/9463563?&pbl=27 The African American National Biography]''' at '''mywire.com'''. 1-Jan-2008.<br />
* ''Joseph René Vilatte'' at Wikipedia.<br />
* Lumsden, Joy, MA (Cantab), PhD (UWI). ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/index.html Father Raphael].''<br />
* Lumsden, Joy. ''[http://jamaicanhistorymonth2007.moonfruit.com/#/father-raphael/4520858082 Robert Josias Morgan, aka Father Raphael].'' '''Jamaican History Month 2007.''' February 16, 2007.<br />
* Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.464-480. ISSN: 1105-154X<br />
* Martin, Tony. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?p=244 The First Black Orthodox Priest in America].'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Christian History in the Americas). July 15, 2009.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''[http://ancientfaith.com/specials/16th_ancient_christianity_african-american_conference/matthew_namee/ Fr. Raphael Morgan: America's First Black Orthodox Priest.]'' '''16th Annual Ancient Christianity & African-American Conference'''. June 03, 2009.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''"[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?cat=58 Robert Josias Morgan visits Russia, 1904]."'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Christian History in the Americas). September 15, 2009.<br />
* White, Gavin. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Episcopal Church.'' In: Randall K. Burkett and Richard Newman (Eds.). '''Black Apostles: Afro-American Clergy Confront the Twentieth Century.''' G. K. Hall, 1978. pp.151-180.<br />
<br />
:''Derived with permission from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Raphael+Morgan&oldid=87671 Raphael Morgan] at [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki].''<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy|Morgan, Raphael]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=August_15&diff=39973August 152009-09-22T21:19:13Z<p>Angellight 888: 1907</p>
<hr />
<div>==Events==<br />
*[[718]]: The Arabs end the siege of [[Constantinople]].<br />
*[[1261]]: A triumphant parade entering [[Constantinople]] is held, with emperor [[Michael VIII Palaeologus]] following the famous Hodegetria icon of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin]] into the city.<br />
*[[1461]]: The [[Empire of Trebizond]] falls to the Ottoman Turks.<br />
*[[1858]]: The cornerstone is laid on the old [[Hellenic Parliament]] building<br />
*[[1907]]: Ordination in Constantinople of Fr. [[Raphael Morgan]], ''"Priest-Apostolic"'' to America and the West Indies, and the first African-American Orthodox priest.<br />
*[[1926]]: The [[Communist Party of Cyprus]] is founded.<br />
*[[1940]]: The Greek war ship "Elli" is torpedoed by an Italian submarine off the coast of [[Tinos]].<br />
*[[1988]]: Without firing a shot, [[Revolutionary Organisation 17 November|November 17th]] members tie up a number of police officers at [[Vyronas]], [[Athens]] and leave with cache of weapons and ammunition.<br />
<br />
==Births==<br />
*[[1876]]: [[Stylianos Gonatas]], general, politician and Prime Minister. <br />
*[[1916]]: [[Takis Morakis]], composer<br />
*[[1922]]: [[Giorgos Mouzakis]], composer<br />
*[[1926]]: [[Kostis Stephanopoulos]], politician and President of Greece<br />
*[[1945]]: [[Loukas Louka (athlete)|Loukas Louka]], athlete ([[shot put]])<br />
*[[1966]]: [[Dimitris Papadopoulos (basketball)|Dimitris Papadopoulos]], [[basketball]] player.<br />
*[[1980]]: [[Michael Katsidis]], [[Greek-Australian]] boxer.<br />
<br />
==Deaths==<br />
*[[1118]]: [[Alexius I Comnenus]], [[Byzantine emperor]]<br />
*[[1989]]: General [[Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos]]<br />
<br />
==Namesdays==<br />
*Today the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] celebrates the [[Dormition of Theotokos]]. It is the name day for: Panagiotis, Marios, Panagiota, Maria and Despina.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Days]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=1907&diff=3997219072009-09-22T21:16:25Z<p>Angellight 888: August 15.</p>
<hr />
<div>==Events==<br />
===March===<br />
*[[March 2]]: Greek refugees from Anchialos, Eastern Rumelia, found the town of [[Nea Anchialos]] in [[Magnesia prefecture]], [[Thessaly]].<br />
*[[March 7]]: [[Marinos Antypas]], an advocate of agrarian reform, is assassinated in [[Thessaly]].<br />
<br />
===June===<br />
*[[June 5]]: [[Kapetan Tellos Agras|Tellos Agras]] - also know as "Kapetan Agras" - is killed during the [[Macedonian Struggle]].<br />
===July===<br />
*[[July 3]]: Greek guerrilas attack [[VMRO]] members and kill their leader Korsakov.<br />
*[[July 16]]: Greek Second Lieutenant Nikos Tsotakos and his men are ambushed by Turkish forces at [[Kalogeriko]], [[Kastoria prefecture|Kastoria]]. Tsotakos and 23 of his men are slain.<br />
<br />
===August===<br />
*[[August 15]]: Ordination in Constantinople of Fr. [[Raphael Morgan]], ''"Priest-Apostolic"'' to America and the West Indies, and the first African-American Orthodox priest.<br />
<br />
===September===<br />
*[[September 8]]: [[Panepistimiou Street]] in [[Athens]] is paved.<br />
<br />
===October===<br />
*[[October 23]]: Greek Second Lieutenant Kosmopoulos and his men assault a convoy of Bulgarians who sought to colonise [[Chalkidiki]], at [[Langadas]]. 27 Bulgarians are killed, the rest return to Bulgaria. No future Bulgarian colonies were planned for [[Chalkidiki]].<br />
<br />
==Births==<br />
===March===<br />
*[[March 8]]: [[Constantine Karamanlis]], Greek politician<br />
===May===<br />
*[[May 22]]: [[Ploutis Servas]], [[Cyprus|Cypriot]] politician, founder of [[AKEL]].<br />
===October===<br />
*[[October 21]]: [[Nikos Engonopoulos]], painter and poet<br />
==Deaths==<br />
===March===<br />
*[[March 7]]: [[Marinos Antypas]], an advocate of agrarian reform.<br />
===May===<br />
*[[May 1]]: [[Gregorios Maraslis]], national benefactor<br />
<br />
[[Category:1907]]<br />
[[Category:Years]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Raphael_Morgan&diff=39971Raphael Morgan2009-09-22T21:10:28Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Very Rev. Fr. Raphael.jpg|right|frame|Source: ''The Daily Gleaner'' (Kingston, Jamaica). [[July 22]], 1913.]]<br />
<br />
Very Rev. '''Raphael Morgan''' (born '''Robert Josias Morgan''', 186x/187x - 19xx) was a Jamaican-American priest of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], designated as ''"Priest-Apostolic"'' to America and the West Indies,<ref>According to Fr. Raphael's biography in the ''Who's Who of the Colored Race'', 1915, after he was ordained to the priesthood:<br><br />
:"...at a special service he was duly commissioned Priest-Apostolic from the Ecumenical and Patriarchal Throne of Constantinople to America and the West Indies."<br><br />
(Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. p.226.)</ref><ref>Robert A. Hill, Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''Letter Denouncing Marcus Garvey.'' In: '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].''' University of California Press, 1983. pg.197.</ref> later the founder and superior of the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha'',<ref name="Order">The ''"Order of...",'' could be a number of things; it could be 1) an honorarium bestowed upon him for service done in the Church; or 2) an entitling which lets others know of his special mission in the Patriarchate/Diocese etc.; it could also 3) refer to a Society of monastics which transcends, because of rare circumstances, physical location; in addition, it is also possible that this was 4) a monastic brotherhood formed for Black Orthodox Christians, since Morgan was referred to as the ''“founder and superior”'' of that religious fraternity, although the formation of formal monastic orders is not traditionally practiced in the Orthodox tradition. The Orthodox Church does not have separate Orders (Franciscan, Carmelite etc.) each with an entirely independent rule/ethos of life. Despite being mentioned on many occasions in association with Morgan, no other material has ever been found on the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha''.</ref> and thought to be the first Black Orthodox clergyman in America. <br />
<br />
He spoke broken Greek, and therefore served mostly in English. Having recently been discovered, his life has garnered great interest, but much of his life still remains shrouded in mystery. <br />
<br />
Fr. Raphael is said to have resided all over the world, including: "in Palestine, Syria, Joppa, Greece, Cyprus, Mytilene, Chios, Sicily, Crete, Egypt, Russia, Ottoman Turkey, Austria, Germany, England, France, Scandinavia, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Switzerland, Bermuda, and the United States."<ref name=MATHER>Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. pp.226-227.</ref><br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Robert Josias Morgan was born in Chapelton, Clarence Parish, Jamaica either in the late 1860s or early 1870s to Robert Josias and Mary Ann (née Johnson) Morgan. He was born six months after his father's death, and named in his honour. Robert was raised in the Anglican tradition and was received elementary schooling locally.<ref name="MATHER"/> <br />
<br />
In his teenage years he travelled to Colón, Panama, then to British Honduras, back to Jamaica, and then to the United States. He became a minister in the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) and left as a missionary to Germany.<ref name="MATHER"/><br />
<br />
===Period in the Church of England===<br />
He then came to England, where he joined the Church of England and was sent to Sierra Leona to the Church Missionary Society Grammar School at Freetown. He studied Greek, Latin, and other higher-level subjects. Being poor, Robert had to work to support himself, and worked as second master of a public school in Freetown. He took course in the Church Missionary Society College at Fourah Bay in Freetown, and was soon appointed a missionary teacher and lay-reader by the Episcopalian Bishop of Liberia, the Right Reverend Samuel David Ferguson.<ref name="MATHER"/> Robert later said during a trip to Jamaica in 1901 that he served five years in West Africa, of which he spent three years in missionary work.<ref name="West Africa">''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html West Africa]''. October 9, 1901. p.7.</ref><br />
<br />
After this Robert again visited England for private study, and then travelled to America to work amongst the African-American community as a lay-reader. He was accepted as a Postulant and as candidate for the Episcopalian deaconate. During the canonical period of waiting period before ordination, Robert again returned to England to study at Saint Aidan's Theological College in Birkenhead, and finally prosecuted his studies at King's College of the University of London.<ref name="MATHER"/> The colleges however do not contain records of his attendance.<ref>It is possible that he academically audited the courses, attending the classes without receiving a formal grade.</ref> <br />
<br />
===Period in the Episcopal Church===<br />
He returned to America, and on June 20, 1895 was ordained as deacon<ref name="note">Fr. Raphael's name is given on a list of Black Episcopal ordinations as follows: ''"1895: Robert Josias Morgan, d. June 20, Coleman; deposed; went abroad and was made a priest in Greek Church."'' (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> by the Rt. Rev. Leighton Coleman,<ref>The ''New York Times''. ''[http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D0DE1DF1639E333A25756C1A9649D946697D6CF Bishop Coleman of Delaware Dies].'' Sunday December 15, 1907. Page 13. (Obituary)</ref> Bishop of the Episcopalian Diocese of Delaware, and a well-known opponent of racism. Robert was appointed honorary curate in St Matthews' Church in Wilminton, Delaware, serving there from 1896 to 1897,<ref name=WHITE>White, Gavin. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Episcopal Church.'' In: Randall K. Burkett and Richard Newman (Eds.). '''Black Apostles: Afro-American Clergy Confront the Twentieth Century.''' G. K. Hall, 1978. pp.151-180.</ref> and procured a job as a teacher for a few public schools in Delaware. From 1897 he served at Charleston, West Virginia.<ref name="WHITE"/><br />
<br />
In 1898, the deacon Robert (Rev. R.J. Morgan) was transferred to the Missionary Jurisdiction of Ashville (now in the Diocese of Western North Carolina). By 1899 he was listed as being assistant minister at [http://www.diocesewnc.org/index.php?content=300.00&city=Morganton St. Stephen's Chapel] in Morganton, North Carolina, and [http://www.asecnc.org/StCyp.html St. Cyprian's Church] in Lincolnton, North Carolina.<ref>Lumsden, Joy, MA (Cantab), PhD (UWI). ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Father Raphael: His Background and Career].'' September 29, 2007.</ref><ref name="note">St. Cyprian's Episcopal Church was established in 1886. The church once stood on West Church in Lincolnton. The property consisted of a church, a parsonage, and a building used as a school. The church was torn down during the 1970's. The <br />
church remained primarily black and was not integrated until 1979. (Jason L. Harpe. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=UJx5c2FRfosC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false Lincoln County Revisited].'' Illustrated. Arcadia Publishing, 2003. pg.18.)</ref><br />
<br />
In 1901-1902 Rev. R. J. Morgan made a visit to his homeland Jamaica. In October 1901 he gave an address to the Jamaica Church Missionary Union, on West Africa and mission work.<ref name="West Africa"/> He also gave a lecture in Port Maria, Jamaica in October 1902, entitled ''"Africa - lts people, Tribes, Idolatry, Customs."''<ref>''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html Port Maria: A Lecture]''. October 7, 1902. p.29.</ref><br />
<br />
From 1902 to 1905 Deacon Morgan served at Richmond, Virginia; in 1905 at Nashville, Tennessee; and by 1906 at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania with his address care of the ''Church of the Crucifixion''.<ref name="WHITE"/> <br />
<br />
At some point during this period he joined an off-shoot of the Episcopalian Church, known as the ''"American Catholic Church"'' (''ACC''), a sect founded by Joseph René Vilatte.<ref name="note">The ''"American Catholic Church"'' (ACC) included the jurisdictions and groups which had come out of [[w:Joseph René Vilatte|Joseph René Vilatte's]] Episcopal ministry or were under his oversight. Among them were French and English speaking constituencies, and Polish and Italian ordinariates. The ACC began on August 20, 1894, at a synod held in Cleveland, Ohio, where Polish-speaking parishes joined the jurisdiction of Bishop Vilatte, however the ACC was actually incorporated in July 1915.</ref> He is listed in the records of the Episcopal Church of the USA as late as 1908, when he was suspended from ministry on the allegations of abandoning his post.<br />
<br />
==Orthodoxy==<br />
===Trip to Russia===<br />
By the turn of the 20th century, Robert seriously began to question his faith, and began intensive study of Anglicanism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy over a three year period, to discover what he felt was the true religion. He concluded that the Orthodox Church was "the pillar and ground of truth", resigned from the Episcopalian Church, and embarked on an extensive trip abroad beginning in the Russian Empire in 1904.<ref name="MATHER"/><br />
<br />
Once there, Robert visited various monasteries and churches, including sites in Odessa, St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kiev, soon becoming quite the sensation. Sundry periodicals began publishing pictures and articles on him, and soon Robert became the Special Guest of the Tsar. He was allowed to be present for the anniversary celebrations of Nicholas II's coronation, and the memorial service said for the repose of the soul of the late Emperor Alexander III.<ref>''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id3.html Priest's Visit: Father Raphael of Greek Orthodox Church: His Extensive Travels].'' July 22, 1913.</ref><br />
<br />
Leaving Russia, Robert traveled Turkey, Cyprus, and the Holy Land, returning to America and writing an article to the ''Russian-American Orthodox Messenger'' (''Vestnik'') in 1904 about his experience in Russia. In this open letter, Morgan expressed hope that the Anglican Church could unite with the Orthodox Churches, clearly moved by his experience in Russia.<ref>Upon Morgan's departure from Russia, he wrote a letter, which was reprinted in the October/November 1904 English supplement to the ''Vestnik'' (Russian Orthodox American Messenger), the official publication of the Russian Archdiocese in America. Here is the text of that letter:<br><br />
:I, Robert Josias Morgan, a legally consecrated cleric of the American Episcopal Church, find it necessary to make it publicly known, that I am not a Bishop, as it was announced in some magazines and daily papers…<br><br />
:… I am not a Bishop, but a legally consecrated deacon. I came to Russia in no way to represent anything, and I was not sent by anybody. I came as a simple tourist, chiefly with the object to see the churches and the monasteries of this country, to enjoy the ritual and the service of the holy Orthodox Church, about which I heard so much abroad. And I am perfectly satisfied with everything I saw and witnessed.<br><br />
:The piety and the fear of God amongst the Russian clergy, both superior and lower, and of the lay people in general are too great to be spoken of. I like Russia, and as to the people I have simply grown to love them for their gentleness, their politeness, their amiability and kindness. It would seem as if the Christian religion penetrated the whole life of the people. This can be observed both in the private home life and the social life. You have but to go to Church in this country, and you immediately see, that there is nothing too valuable for the people to be offered to God. Note how they pray, how patiently they stand through the long Church services…<br><br />
:Now, having spent here about a month, I leave your country with a feeling of profound gratitude and take back to North America all the good impressions I received here. And when there I shall speak boldly and loudly about the brotherly feelings entertained here in the bosom of the holy Orthodox Church towards its Anglican sister of North America, and about the prayers which are offered here daily for the union of all the Catholic Christendom.<br><br />
:My constant humble prayer is for the union of all Churches, and especially the union of the Anglican faith with the Orthodox Church of Russia. I solicited the Metropolitans and the Bishops to grant me their blessing in regard to this prayer and obtained it. Now I pray daily and eagerly for a better mutual understanding between the character and their union. God grant a blessing to this cause and a hearing to our prayers and supplications. Let us solicit the prayers of the Saints. Let us seek the intercession of the holy Mother of God. Virgin Mary, pray for us!<br><br />
:In conclusion I must say, that my stay in Russia did me personally much good: I feel now firmer and stronger spiritually than I did before I came.<br><br />
:God bless the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of this country! God bless the Emperor and all the reigning family! God grant them a long life, peace and prosperity!<br><br />
:I am sincerely yours in God and in the name of Mary,<br><br />
:Robert Josias Morgan.<br><br />
(Matthew Namee. ''"[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?cat=58 Robert Josias Morgan visits Russia, 1904]."'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Chrisitan History in the Americas). September 15, 2009.)</ref> People of African descent were generally well-received within the Russian Empire, Morgan believed. Abram Hannibal had served under Emperor Peter the Great, and rose to lieutenant general in the Russian Army. Visiting artists, foreign service officials, and athletes, such as famous horse jockey Jimmy Winkfield, were likewise welcomed. With his experience of Russia and Russian Orthodoxy fresh in his mind, Morgan returned to the United States and continued his spiritual quest.<ref name=Oliver>Fr. Oliver Herbel. ''Morgan, Raphael.'' '''[http://www.mywire.com/a/African-American-National-Biography/Morgan-Raphael/9463563?&pbl=27 The African American National Biography]''' at '''mywire.com'''. 1-Jan-2008.</ref><br />
<br />
===Study and Trip to Ecumenical Patriarchate===<br />
For another three years, Robert studied under Greek priests for his baptism,<ref name="MATHER"/> eventually deciding to seek entry and ordination in the Greek Orthodox Church. In January of 1906, he is documented as ''assisting'' in the Christmas Divine Liturgy.<ref>The ''Philadelphia Inquirer'' reported on January 8, 1906, that ''“Rev. R.J. Morgan of the American Catholic Church, an off-shoot of the Protestant Episcopal Church, assisted.”''</ref> In 1907 the Philadephia Greek community referred Robert to the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] in Constantinople armed with two letters of support. One was a recommendation from Fr. Demetrios Petrides, the Greek priest then serving the Philadelphia community, dated 18 June 1907, who described Morgan as a man sincerely coming into Orthodoxy after long and diligent study, and recommending his baptism and ordination into the priesthood. The second letter of support was from the "Ecclesiastical Committee" of the Philadelphia Greek Orthodox Church, stating he could serve as an assistant priest if he failed to form a separate Orthodox parish among his fellow Black Americans.<ref>Summaries of the two letters are given in the Synodal Minutes of 19 July, 1907, presided over by Patriarch Joachim III of Constantinople, who introduced the subject of Morgan's baptism and ordination. As is stated in the second letter, Morgan's goal was to establish an Orthodox community of Blacks (''' ''"...να πηξη ιδιαν ορθοδοξον κοινοτητα μεταξυ των εν Αμερικη ομοφυλων αυτου Νιγρητων..."'' ''').</ref><br />
<br />
In Constantinople, Robert was interviewed by Metropolitan Joachim (Phoropoulos) of Pelagonia, one of the few bishops of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] that could speak English and among the most learned of the Constantinopolitan hierarchs of that time. Metropolitan Joachim examined Robert, noting that he had a ''"deep knowledge of the teachings of the Orthodox Church",'' and that he also had a certificate from the President of the Methodist Community, duly notarized, stating that he was a man ''"of high calling and of a religious life".''<ref name=MANOLIS>Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.464-480.</ref> Citing the Biblical exhortation ''"...the one who comes to Me I will certainly not cast out"'' (John 6:37), the Metropolitan concluded that Robert should be baptised, chrismated, ordained, and sent back to America in order to ''"carry the light of the Orthodox faith among his racial brothers".'' <br />
<br />
===Baptism and Ordination===<br />
On Friday August 2, 1907 the Holy Synod approved that the Baptism take place the following Sunday in the ''Church of the Lifegiving Source'' at the Patriarchal Monastery at Valoukli, in Constantinople.<ref>The Patriarchal Monastery at Valoukli is where the cemetery with the graves of the Patriarchs is found.</ref> Metropolitan Joachim (Phoropoulos) of Pelagonia was to officiate at the sacrament, and the sponsor was to be Bishop Leontios (Liverios) of Theodoroupolis, Abbott of the Monastery at Valoukli. On Sunday August 4, 1907, Robert was baptised "Raphael" before 3000 people;<ref name="MATHER"/> subsequently he was ordained a deacon on August 12, 1907 by Metropolitan Joachim; and finally ordained a priest on the feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos, August 15, 1907.<ref>In a letter from the Chief Archivist of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, dated April 4, 1973, it was confirmed that the records of the Patriarchate show that Morgan was baptized and renamed "Raphael". (Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.467.)</ref> According to the contemporary Uniate periodical ''L'Echo d' Orient'', which sarcastically described Morgan's Baptism of triple immerson, the Metropolitan conducted the sacraments of Baptism and Ordination in the English language, following which Fr. Raphael chanted the Divine Liturgy in English.<ref>''Une Conquete du Patriarcat Oecumenique.'' ''' ''Echos d'Orient'' '''. Vol. XI. No.68, 1908, pp.55-56.</ref> Fr. Raphael Morgan's conversion to the Greek Orthodox Church made him the first African American Orthodox priest. <br />
<br />
Fr. Raphael was sent back to America with vestments, a cross, and 20 pounds sterling for his traveling expenses. He was allowed to hear confessions, but denied Holy Chrism and an antimension, presumably to attach his missionary ministry to the Philadelphia church. The minutes of the Holy Synod from October 2, 1907, made it clear in fact that Fr. Raphael was to be under the jurisdiction of Rev. Petrides of Philadelphia, until such time as he had been trained in liturgics and was able to establish a separate Orthodox parish.<ref name="MANOLIS"/><br />
<br />
===Return to America===<br />
Ellis Island records indicate the arrival in New York from Naples, Italy, of the priest, Raffaele Morgan, in December 1907.<ref>Lumsden, Joy. ''[http://jamaicanhistorymonth2007.moonfruit.com/#/father-raphael/4520858082 Robert Josias Morgan, aka Father Raphael].'' '''Jamaican History Month 2007.''' February 16, 2007.</ref> Once home, Fr. Raphael baptized his wife and children in the Orthodox Church. This is noted in the minutes of the Holy Synod of February 9, 1908, which acknowledges receipt of a communication from Fr. Raphael.<br />
<br />
The last mention of Fr. Raphael in Patriarchal records is in the minutes of the Holy Synod of November 4, 1908, which cite a letter from Fr. Raphael recommending an Anglican priest of Philadelphia, named "A.C.V. Cartier",<ref>A.C.V. Cartier was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate by Bishop Charles Quintard in 1895, and ordained to the Episcopal priesthood in the same year by Bishop Quintard. (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> as a candidate for conversion to Orthodoxy and ordination as a priest. Cartier was rector of the [http://www.aecst.org/home.htm African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas], in Philadelphia, from 1906-12.<ref>George Alexander McGuire was rector of The African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas in Philadelphia from 1902-05. He was succeeded as rector by A.C.V. Cartier (1906-12), the man whom Morgan recommended to the Ecumenical Patriarchate for Orthodox ordination.</ref> Saint Thomas' served the African American elite of Philadelphia and was one of the most prestigious congregations in African American Christianity, having been started in 1794 by Absalom Jones, one of the founders, together with Richard Allen, of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.<ref name=Martin>Tony Martin. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004. p.776.</ref> According to the letter, Cartier desired as an Orthodox priest to undertake missionary work among his fellow blacks. Due to the fact that the jurisdiction over the Greek Church of the diaspora had been ceded by the Ecumenical Patriarchate to the Church of Greece in 1908, the request was forwarded there. However according to Greek-American historian Paul G. Manolis, a search of the Archives of the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece did not turn up any correspondence with Fr. Raphael. His letter about A.C.V. Cartier is the only indication we have from Church records of his missionary efforts among his people.<ref name="MANOLIS"/><br />
<br />
In 1909, his wife filed for divorce, on the alleged charges of cruelty and failure to support their children. She left with their son Cyril to Delaware County, where she remarried.<br />
<br />
===Monastic Tonsure===<br />
In 1911 Fr. Raphael sailed to Cyprus, presumably to be tonsured a hieromonk. Possibly somewhere around this time, he founded the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha'' (O.C.G.).<ref name="Order"/> However, Fr. Oliver Herbel (AOC) has suggested that in 1911 Fr. Raphael was tonsured in Athens.<ref>Fr. Oliver Herbel (AOC). ''[http://www.ocanews.org/Herbeljurisdiction4.22.09.html Jurisdictional Disunity and the Russian Mission].'' '''Orthodox Christians for Accountability'''. April 22, 2009.</ref> As is noted above however, the Archives of the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece contain no information about Fr. Raphael.<br />
<br />
===Lecture Tour in Jamaica===<br />
The ''Jamaica Times'' article of April 26, 1913, wrote that Fr. Raphael was headquartered at Philadelphia where he wanted to build a chapel for his missionary efforts, that he had recently visited Europe to collect funds to this end, and had the intention of extending his work to the West Indies.<ref>''The Jamaica Times''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Only Negro Who is a Greek Priest].'' April 26, 1913.</ref><br />
<br />
Near the end of 1913, Fr. Raphael visited his homeland of Jamaica, staying for several months until sometime the next year. While there, he met a group of Syrians, who were complaining of a lack of Orthodox churches on the island. Fr. Raphael did his best to contact the Syrian-American diocese of the Russian church, writing to St. Raphael of Brooklyn, but as most of their descendants are now communicants in the Episcopal Church, this presumably came to no avail. In December, a Russian warship came to port, and he concelebrated the Divine Liturgy with the sailors, their chaplain, and his new-found Syrians.<br />
<br />
The main work of his visit, however, was a lecture circuit that he ran throughout Jamaica. Citing a lack of Orthodox churches, Fr. Raphael would speak at churches of various denomination. The topics would usually cover his travels, the Holy Land, and Holy Orthodoxy. At some point, he even made it to his hometown of Chapelton, to whom he remarked of his name change, ''"I will always be Robert to you".''<ref>''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id6.html Gives Lecture. Fr. Raphael Talks of His Travels Abroad.]'' August 15, 1913.</ref><br />
<br />
According to the ''Daily Gleaner'' edition of November 2, 1914, Fr. Raphael had just set sail back for America to start mission work under his Faith.<ref>''"Father Raphael, Priest of the Greek Orthodox Church, who has been in the island for some time, sailed for America last week. It is understood that he will return shortly to his native land and start mission work under his Faith. As is well known, the seat of the Greek Church to which father Raphael belongs is not far from the theatre of war, so there is no hope of the Father returning to his Mother Church in a hurry. Father Raphael is a native of Clarendon."'' (''The Daily Gleaner.'' November 2, 1914. p.13.)</ref><br />
<br />
===Last Known Records===<br />
In 1916 Fr. Raphael was still in Philadelphia, having made the Philadelphia Greek parish his base of operations.<ref>Namee, Matthew. ''[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?p=244 The First Black Orthodox Priest in America].'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Christian History in the Americas). July 15, 2009.</ref> The last documentation of Fr. Raphael comes from a letter to the ''Daily Gleaner'' on October 4, 1916. Representing a group of about a dozen other like-minded Jamaican-Americans, he wrote in to protest the lectures of Black Nationalist Marcus Garvey.<ref>Fr. Raphael signed the letter as ''' ''"Father Raphael, O.C.G., Priest-Apostolic, the Greek-Orthodox Catholic Church."'' '''The full text of the signed letter is printed in:<br>Robert A. Hill, Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''Letter Denouncing Marcus Garvey.'' In: '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].''' University of California Press, 1983. pp.196-197.</ref> Garvey's views on Jamaica, they felt, were damaging to both the reputation of their homeland and its people, enumerating several objections to Garvey's stated preference for the prejudice of the American whites over that of English whites.<ref name=Oliver/> Garvey's response came ten days later, in which he called the letter a conspiratorial fabrication meant to undermine the success and favour he had gained while in Jamaica and in the United States.<br />
<br />
Little is known of Fr. Raphael's life after this point, except from some interviews conducted in the 1970s between Greek-American historian Paul G. Manolis and surviving members of the [http://evangelismos.us/default.aspx Greek Community of the Annunciation] in Philadelphia, who recalled the black priest who was evidently a part of their community for a period of time. One elderly woman, Grammatike Kritikos Sherwin, remembered that Fr. Raphael's daughter left to attend Oxford; another parishioner, Kyriacos Biniaris, recalls that Morgan, whose hand "he kissed many times", spoke broken Greek and served with Fr. Petrides reciting the liturgy mostly in English; whilst another, a George Liacouras, recalled that after serving in Philadelphia for some years, Fr. Raphael left for Jerusalem, never to return.<ref name="MANOLIS"/> The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America has no record either of Fr. Raphael Morgan, nor of Fr. Demetrios Petrides, as the first records for the Philadelphia community in the archives only began in 1918.<br />
<br />
==Influence==<br />
==="Indirect Conversion of Thousands" Theory===<br />
During the ''16th Annual Ancient Christianity and African-American Conference'' in 2009, Matthew Namee presented a 23-minute lecture on the heretofore recently discovered life of Fr. Raphael Morgan. He postulates that even if Fr. Raphael's missionary efforts failed outside of his immediate family, he may be indirectly responsible for the conversion of thousands, via contact with Episcopal priest George Alexander McGuire (1866-1934).<br />
<br />
Records for [http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St Philip's Episcopal Church] in Richmond, Virgina indicate that for a short while in 1901 Robert J. Morgan was listed as the Rector. However, being only a deacon, this would mean that Robert's position was only temporary, during an interregnum of sorts. The previous rector was one George Alexander McGuire.<br><br />
<br />
'''African Orthodox Church'''<br><br />
George McGuire became an associate of Marcus Garvey and his Black Nationalist UNIA movement, being appointed the first Chaplain-General of the organization at its inaugural international convention in New York in August 1920. On September 28, 1921, he was made a bishop of the American Catholic Church by Joseph René Vilatte, and soon after founded the African Orthodox Church, a non-canonical Black Nationalist church, in the Anglican tradition. Today, it is best known for its canonisation of Jazz legend John Coltrane.<br />
<br />
Bishop George McGuire soon spread his African Orthodox Church throughout the United States, and soon even made a presence on the African continent in such countries as Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Between 1924-1934 McGuire built the AOC into a thriving international church. Branches were eventually established in Canada, Barbados, Cuba, South Africa, Uganda, Kenya, Miami, Chicago, Harlem, Boston, Cambridge (Massachusetts), and elsewhere. The official organ of AOC, ''The Negro Churchman,'' became an effective link for the far-flung organization.<ref name="Martin"/> However, around the time of the Second World War, the African churches were cut off from the American and in the post-war period had drifted far enough way to request and come under the omophorion of the Church of Alexandria.<br />
<br />
'''Fr. Raphael and George McGuire'''<br><br />
Namee questions whence the idea came for McGuire to form namely an ''Orthodox'' church. Fr. Raphael Morgan and George McGuire have some striking similarities, including the facts that both:<br />
* served concurrently or consecutively at [http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St Philip's Episcopal Church] in Virginia,<ref>[http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St. Philip’s Episcopal Church] of Richmond, Virginia lists Morgan as having been the rector of their parish for a short time in 1901. He is listed as the rector from “1901-April 1901.” Morgan’s predecessor at St. Philip’s was a certain “Reverend George Alexander McQuire,” who served the parish from April 1898 to November 1900.</ref> <br />
* were ordained in the Episcopal Church around the same time,<ref>Rev. Morgan was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate on June 20, 1895, by Bishop Leighton Coleman. George McGuire was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate on June 29, 1896 by Bishop Boyd Vincent, and to the Episcopal priesthood in 1897 by the same. (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> and <br />
* both later served in Philadelphia, each having had some contact with Rev. A.C.V. Cartier of the [http://www.aecst.org/home.htm African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas].<br />
<br />
Namee concludes that with so many coincidences, it is impossible for these two men to not have known one another; and therefore it must be from some influence - either in conversation with Fr. Raphael or through evangelism - that McGuire received his inspiration and came to know the Orthodox Church. An additional point is that Garvey already knew of Fr. Raphael when McGuire joined his organization in 1920 (since Fr. Raphael had written the letter in 1916 protesting Garvey's lectures), which makes it likely that McGuire and Garvey had discussed Morgan at some point, especially as they were interested in forming an independent African-American Church.<br />
<br />
One deterrent from this theory comes in the familiarity he had with the Orthodox Church by McGuire's ''consecrator'', Joseph René Vilatte.<ref>In his quest to obtain valid Apostolic Orders, Fr. McGuire had himself re-ordained Bishop in the ''American Catholic Church'', being consecrated on September 28, 1921, in Chicago, Illinois, by Archbishop Joseph René Vilatte, assisted by bishop Carl A. Nybladh who had been consecrated by Vilatte. However the Orthodox Church considers Villate to be an Episcopi vagantes.</ref> At various points, Vilatte come into contact with both the Russian and Syriac Orthodox Churches in a move for Catholic-Orthodox reconciliation, having even been accepted for a while by Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov) of the Aleutians, Alaska, in May of 1891.<br />
<br />
===Legacy===<br />
Scholar Gavin White, writing in the 1970's, states that if Morgan tried to organize an African-American Greek Orthodox church in Philadelphia, its memory has vanished, and nothing whatsoever is known about Morgan in later years. However he hastens to add that: <br />
:"...there can be no doubt that McGuire knew all about Morgan and it is very probable that he knew him personally. It is just possible that it was Morgan who first introduced McGuire to the Episcopal Church in Wilmington; it was almost certainly Morgan who introduced McGuire to the idea of Eastern episcopacy.<ref name="WHITE"/> <br />
This concurs with Matthew Namee's conclusion above, that it was Fr. Raphael who was George Alexander McGuire's inspiration to form namely an "Orthodox" church. In time the African-based portion of McGuire's ''"African Orthodox Church"'' in Kenya and Uganda, eventually did end up under the canonical jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa in 1946. And although those two churches were already upon their own set path towards full canonical Orthodoxy, McGuire was an important part of that process at one stage, and Fr. Raphael Morgan in turn was behind McGuire's inspiration to form an "Orthodox" church. In this regard, by planting the seed, it can be said that Fr. Raphael was also in some measure indirectly part of that process as well. <br />
<br />
In the end, while Fr. Raphael Morgan's work among Jamaicans in Philadelphia appears to have been transitory, nevertheless he did serve as an important precedent for current African American interest in Orthodoxy, especially that of Father [http://unexpectedjoychurch.org/administration.html Moses Berry], director of the [http://www.oaahm.org/index.html Ozarks African American Heritage Museum], who served as the priest to the [http://unexpectedjoychurch.org/ Theotokos, the “Unexpected Joy,” Orthodox Mission] (OCA) in Ash Grove, Missouri.<ref name=Oliver/><br />
<br />
==References== <br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://evangelismos.us/default.aspx Evangelismos Greek Orthodox Church], Philadelphia, PA. ''(Fr. Raphael's home parish, ca.~1905-1916)''<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
'''Contemporary Sources'''<br />
* Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922.<br />
* Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Afro-American Clergy List. Priests''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/afroamericanchur00bragiala Afro-American Church Work and Workers].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Print, 1904.<br />
* Hill, Robert A., Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].'' University of California Press, 1983. ISBN 9780520044562<br />
* Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. <br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html West Africa]''. October 9, 1901. p.7.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id3.html Priest's Visit: Father Raphael of Greek Orthodox Church: His Extensive Travels].'' July 22, 1913.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id6.html Gives Lecture. Fr. Raphael Talks of His Travels Abroad.]'' August 15, 1913.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' November 2, 1914. p.13.<br />
* ''The Jamaica Times''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Only Negro Who is a Greek Priest].'' April 26, 1913.<br />
* ''Une Conquete du Patriarcat Oecumenique.'' ''' ''Echos d'Orient'' '''. Vol. XI. No.68, 1908, pp.55-56. <br />
:(''Publication of the Roman Catholic Uniate Assumptionist Fathers, located in Chalcedon'')<br />
'''Modern Sources'''<br />
* Herbel, Fr. Oliver (AOC). ''[http://www.ocanews.org/Herbeljurisdiction4.22.09.html Jurisdictional Disunity and the Russian Mission].'' '''Orthodox Christians for Accountability'''. April 22, 2009.<br />
* Herbel, Fr. Oliver (AOC). ''Morgan, Raphael.'' '''[http://www.mywire.com/a/African-American-National-Biography/Morgan-Raphael/9463563?&pbl=27 The African American National Biography]''' at '''mywire.com'''. 1-Jan-2008.<br />
* ''Joseph René Vilatte'' at Wikipedia.<br />
* Lumsden, Joy, MA (Cantab), PhD (UWI). ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/index.html Father Raphael].''<br />
* Lumsden, Joy. ''[http://jamaicanhistorymonth2007.moonfruit.com/#/father-raphael/4520858082 Robert Josias Morgan, aka Father Raphael].'' '''Jamaican History Month 2007.''' February 16, 2007.<br />
* Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.464-480. ISSN: 1105-154X<br />
* Martin, Tony. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?p=244 The First Black Orthodox Priest in America].'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Christian History in the Americas). July 15, 2009.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''[http://ancientfaith.com/specials/16th_ancient_christianity_african-american_conference/matthew_namee/ Fr. Raphael Morgan: America's First Black Orthodox Priest.]'' '''16th Annual Ancient Christianity & African-American Conference'''. June 03, 2009.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''"[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?cat=58 Robert Josias Morgan visits Russia, 1904]."'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Chrisitan History in the Americas). September 15, 2009.<br />
* White, Gavin. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Episcopal Church.'' In: Randall K. Burkett and Richard Newman (Eds.). '''Black Apostles: Afro-American Clergy Confront the Twentieth Century.''' G. K. Hall, 1978. pp.151-180.<br />
<br />
:''Derived with permission from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Raphael+Morgan&oldid=87671 Raphael Morgan] at [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki].''</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=File:Very_Rev._Fr._Raphael.jpg&diff=39970File:Very Rev. Fr. Raphael.jpg2009-09-22T21:08:15Z<p>Angellight 888: Very Reverend Father Raphael Morgan.</p>
<hr />
<div>Very Reverend Father Raphael Morgan.</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Raphael_Morgan&diff=39969Raphael Morgan2009-09-22T21:02:21Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Raphael_Morgan.jpg|right|frame|Source: ''The Daily Gleaner'' (Kingston, Jamaica). [[July 22]], 1913.]]<br />
<br />
Very Rev. '''Raphael Morgan''' (born '''Robert Josias Morgan''', 186x/187x - 19xx) was a Jamaican-American priest of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], designated as ''"Priest-Apostolic"'' to America and the West Indies,<ref>According to Fr. Raphael's biography in the ''Who's Who of the Colored Race'', 1915, after he was ordained to the priesthood:<br><br />
:"...at a special service he was duly commissioned Priest-Apostolic from the Ecumenical and Patriarchal Throne of Constantinople to America and the West Indies."<br><br />
(Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. p.226.)</ref><ref>Robert A. Hill, Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''Letter Denouncing Marcus Garvey.'' In: '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].''' University of California Press, 1983. pg.197.</ref> later the founder and superior of the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha'',<ref name="Order">The ''"Order of...",'' could be a number of things; it could be 1) an honorarium bestowed upon him for service done in the Church; or 2) an entitling which lets others know of his special mission in the Patriarchate/Diocese etc.; it could also 3) refer to a Society of monastics which transcends, because of rare circumstances, physical location; in addition, it is also possible that this was 4) a monastic brotherhood formed for Black Orthodox Christians, since Morgan was referred to as the ''“founder and superior”'' of that religious fraternity, although the formation of formal monastic orders is not traditionally practiced in the Orthodox tradition. The Orthodox Church does not have separate Orders (Franciscan, Carmelite etc.) each with an entirely independent rule/ethos of life. Despite being mentioned on many occasions in association with Morgan, no other material has ever been found on the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha''.</ref> and thought to be the first Black Orthodox clergyman in America. <br />
<br />
He spoke broken Greek, and therefore served mostly in English. Having recently been discovered, his life has garnered great interest, but much of his life still remains shrouded in mystery. <br />
<br />
Fr. Raphael is said to have resided all over the world, including: "in Palestine, Syria, Joppa, Greece, Cyprus, Mytilene, Chios, Sicily, Crete, Egypt, Russia, Ottoman Turkey, Austria, Germany, England, France, Scandinavia, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Switzerland, Bermuda, and the United States."<ref name=MATHER>Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. pp.226-227.</ref><br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Robert Josias Morgan was born in Chapelton, Clarence Parish, Jamaica either in the late 1860s or early 1870s to Robert Josias and Mary Ann (née Johnson) Morgan. He was born six months after his father's death, and named in his honour. Robert was raised in the Anglican tradition and was received elementary schooling locally.<ref name="MATHER"/> <br />
<br />
In his teenage years he travelled to Colón, Panama, then to British Honduras, back to Jamaica, and then to the United States. He became a minister in the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) and left as a missionary to Germany.<ref name="MATHER"/><br />
<br />
===Period in the Church of England===<br />
He then came to England, where he joined the Church of England and was sent to Sierra Leona to the Church Missionary Society Grammar School at Freetown. He studied Greek, Latin, and other higher-level subjects. Being poor, Robert had to work to support himself, and worked as second master of a public school in Freetown. He took course in the Church Missionary Society College at Fourah Bay in Freetown, and was soon appointed a missionary teacher and lay-reader by the Episcopalian Bishop of Liberia, the Right Reverend Samuel David Ferguson.<ref name="MATHER"/> Robert later said during a trip to Jamaica in 1901 that he served five years in West Africa, of which he spent three years in missionary work.<ref name="West Africa">''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html West Africa]''. October 9, 1901. p.7.</ref><br />
<br />
After this Robert again visited England for private study, and then travelled to America to work amongst the African-American community as a lay-reader. He was accepted as a Postulant and as candidate for the Episcopalian deaconate. During the canonical period of waiting period before ordination, Robert again returned to England to study at Saint Aidan's Theological College in Birkenhead, and finally prosecuted his studies at King's College of the University of London.<ref name="MATHER"/> The colleges however do not contain records of his attendance.<ref>It is possible that he academically audited the courses, attending the classes without receiving a formal grade.</ref> <br />
<br />
===Period in the Episcopal Church===<br />
He returned to America, and on June 20, 1895 was ordained as deacon<ref name="note">Fr. Raphael's name is given on a list of Black Episcopal ordinations as follows: ''"1895: Robert Josias Morgan, d. June 20, Coleman; deposed; went abroad and was made a priest in Greek Church."'' (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> by the Rt. Rev. Leighton Coleman,<ref>The ''New York Times''. ''[http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D0DE1DF1639E333A25756C1A9649D946697D6CF Bishop Coleman of Delaware Dies].'' Sunday December 15, 1907. Page 13. (Obituary)</ref> Bishop of the Episcopalian Diocese of Delaware, and a well-known opponent of racism. Robert was appointed honorary curate in St Matthews' Church in Wilminton, Delaware, serving there from 1896 to 1897,<ref name=WHITE>White, Gavin. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Episcopal Church.'' In: Randall K. Burkett and Richard Newman (Eds.). '''Black Apostles: Afro-American Clergy Confront the Twentieth Century.''' G. K. Hall, 1978. pp.151-180.</ref> and procured a job as a teacher for a few public schools in Delaware. From 1897 he served at Charleston, West Virginia.<ref name="WHITE"/><br />
<br />
In 1898, the deacon Robert (Rev. R.J. Morgan) was transferred to the Missionary Jurisdiction of Ashville (now in the Diocese of Western North Carolina). By 1899 he was listed as being assistant minister at [http://www.diocesewnc.org/index.php?content=300.00&city=Morganton St. Stephen's Chapel] in Morganton, North Carolina, and [http://www.asecnc.org/StCyp.html St. Cyprian's Church] in Lincolnton, North Carolina.<ref>Lumsden, Joy, MA (Cantab), PhD (UWI). ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Father Raphael: His Background and Career].'' September 29, 2007.</ref><ref name="note">St. Cyprian's Episcopal Church was established in 1886. The church once stood on West Church in Lincolnton. The property consisted of a church, a parsonage, and a building used as a school. The church was torn down during the 1970's. The <br />
church remained primarily black and was not integrated until 1979. (Jason L. Harpe. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=UJx5c2FRfosC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false Lincoln County Revisited].'' Illustrated. Arcadia Publishing, 2003. pg.18.)</ref><br />
<br />
In 1901-1902 Rev. R. J. Morgan made a visit to his homeland Jamaica. In October 1901 he gave an address to the Jamaica Church Missionary Union, on West Africa and mission work.<ref name="West Africa"/> He also gave a lecture in Port Maria, Jamaica in October 1902, entitled ''"Africa - lts people, Tribes, Idolatry, Customs."''<ref>''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html Port Maria: A Lecture]''. October 7, 1902. p.29.</ref><br />
<br />
From 1902 to 1905 Deacon Morgan served at Richmond, Virginia; in 1905 at Nashville, Tennessee; and by 1906 at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania with his address care of the ''Church of the Crucifixion''.<ref name="WHITE"/> <br />
<br />
At some point during this period he joined an off-shoot of the Episcopalian Church, known as the ''"American Catholic Church"'' (''ACC''), a sect founded by Joseph René Vilatte.<ref name="note">The ''"American Catholic Church"'' (ACC) included the jurisdictions and groups which had come out of [[w:Joseph René Vilatte|Joseph René Vilatte's]] Episcopal ministry or were under his oversight. Among them were French and English speaking constituencies, and Polish and Italian ordinariates. The ACC began on August 20, 1894, at a synod held in Cleveland, Ohio, where Polish-speaking parishes joined the jurisdiction of Bishop Vilatte, however the ACC was actually incorporated in July 1915.</ref> He is listed in the records of the Episcopal Church of the USA as late as 1908, when he was suspended from ministry on the allegations of abandoning his post.<br />
<br />
==Orthodoxy==<br />
===Trip to Russia===<br />
By the turn of the 20th century, Robert seriously began to question his faith, and began intensive study of Anglicanism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy over a three year period, to discover what he felt was the true religion. He concluded that the Orthodox Church was "the pillar and ground of truth", resigned from the Episcopalian Church, and embarked on an extensive trip abroad beginning in the Russian Empire in 1904.<ref name="MATHER"/><br />
<br />
Once there, Robert visited various monasteries and churches, including sites in Odessa, St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kiev, soon becoming quite the sensation. Sundry periodicals began publishing pictures and articles on him, and soon Robert became the Special Guest of the Tsar. He was allowed to be present for the anniversary celebrations of Nicholas II's coronation, and the memorial service said for the repose of the soul of the late Emperor Alexander III.<ref>''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id3.html Priest's Visit: Father Raphael of Greek Orthodox Church: His Extensive Travels].'' July 22, 1913.</ref><br />
<br />
Leaving Russia, Robert traveled Turkey, Cyprus, and the Holy Land, returning to America and writing an article to the ''Russian-American Orthodox Messenger'' (''Vestnik'') in 1904 about his experience in Russia. In this open letter, Morgan expressed hope that the Anglican Church could unite with the Orthodox Churches, clearly moved by his experience in Russia.<ref>Upon Morgan's departure from Russia, he wrote a letter, which was reprinted in the October/November 1904 English supplement to the ''Vestnik'' (Russian Orthodox American Messenger), the official publication of the Russian Archdiocese in America. Here is the text of that letter:<br><br />
:I, Robert Josias Morgan, a legally consecrated cleric of the American Episcopal Church, find it necessary to make it publicly known, that I am not a Bishop, as it was announced in some magazines and daily papers…<br><br />
:… I am not a Bishop, but a legally consecrated deacon. I came to Russia in no way to represent anything, and I was not sent by anybody. I came as a simple tourist, chiefly with the object to see the churches and the monasteries of this country, to enjoy the ritual and the service of the holy Orthodox Church, about which I heard so much abroad. And I am perfectly satisfied with everything I saw and witnessed.<br><br />
:The piety and the fear of God amongst the Russian clergy, both superior and lower, and of the lay people in general are too great to be spoken of. I like Russia, and as to the people I have simply grown to love them for their gentleness, their politeness, their amiability and kindness. It would seem as if the Christian religion penetrated the whole life of the people. This can be observed both in the private home life and the social life. You have but to go to Church in this country, and you immediately see, that there is nothing too valuable for the people to be offered to God. Note how they pray, how patiently they stand through the long Church services…<br><br />
:Now, having spent here about a month, I leave your country with a feeling of profound gratitude and take back to North America all the good impressions I received here. And when there I shall speak boldly and loudly about the brotherly feelings entertained here in the bosom of the holy Orthodox Church towards its Anglican sister of North America, and about the prayers which are offered here daily for the union of all the Catholic Christendom.<br><br />
:My constant humble prayer is for the union of all Churches, and especially the union of the Anglican faith with the Orthodox Church of Russia. I solicited the Metropolitans and the Bishops to grant me their blessing in regard to this prayer and obtained it. Now I pray daily and eagerly for a better mutual understanding between the character and their union. God grant a blessing to this cause and a hearing to our prayers and supplications. Let us solicit the prayers of the Saints. Let us seek the intercession of the holy Mother of God. Virgin Mary, pray for us!<br><br />
:In conclusion I must say, that my stay in Russia did me personally much good: I feel now firmer and stronger spiritually than I did before I came.<br><br />
:God bless the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of this country! God bless the Emperor and all the reigning family! God grant them a long life, peace and prosperity!<br><br />
:I am sincerely yours in God and in the name of Mary,<br><br />
:Robert Josias Morgan.<br><br />
(Matthew Namee. ''"[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?cat=58 Robert Josias Morgan visits Russia, 1904]."'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Chrisitan History in the Americas). September 15, 2009.)</ref> People of African descent were generally well-received within the Russian Empire, Morgan believed. Abram Hannibal had served under Emperor Peter the Great, and rose to lieutenant general in the Russian Army. Visiting artists, foreign service officials, and athletes, such as famous horse jockey Jimmy Winkfield, were likewise welcomed. With his experience of Russia and Russian Orthodoxy fresh in his mind, Morgan returned to the United States and continued his spiritual quest.<ref name=Oliver>Fr. Oliver Herbel. ''Morgan, Raphael.'' '''[http://www.mywire.com/a/African-American-National-Biography/Morgan-Raphael/9463563?&pbl=27 The African American National Biography]''' at '''mywire.com'''. 1-Jan-2008.</ref><br />
<br />
===Study and Trip to Ecumenical Patriarchate===<br />
For another three years, Robert studied under Greek priests for his baptism,<ref name="MATHER"/> eventually deciding to seek entry and ordination in the Greek Orthodox Church. In January of 1906, he is documented as ''assisting'' in the Christmas Divine Liturgy.<ref>The ''Philadelphia Inquirer'' reported on January 8, 1906, that ''“Rev. R.J. Morgan of the American Catholic Church, an off-shoot of the Protestant Episcopal Church, assisted.”''</ref> In 1907 the Philadephia Greek community referred Robert to the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] in Constantinople armed with two letters of support. One was a recommendation from Fr. Demetrios Petrides, the Greek priest then serving the Philadelphia community, dated 18 June 1907, who described Morgan as a man sincerely coming into Orthodoxy after long and diligent study, and recommending his baptism and ordination into the priesthood. The second letter of support was from the "Ecclesiastical Committee" of the Philadelphia Greek Orthodox Church, stating he could serve as an assistant priest if he failed to form a separate Orthodox parish among his fellow Black Americans.<ref>Summaries of the two letters are given in the Synodal Minutes of 19 July, 1907, presided over by Patriarch Joachim III of Constantinople, who introduced the subject of Morgan's baptism and ordination. As is stated in the second letter, Morgan's goal was to establish an Orthodox community of Blacks (''' ''"...να πηξη ιδιαν ορθοδοξον κοινοτητα μεταξυ των εν Αμερικη ομοφυλων αυτου Νιγρητων..."'' ''').</ref><br />
<br />
In Constantinople, Robert was interviewed by Metropolitan Joachim (Phoropoulos) of Pelagonia, one of the few bishops of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] that could speak English and among the most learned of the Constantinopolitan hierarchs of that time. Metropolitan Joachim examined Robert, noting that he had a ''"deep knowledge of the teachings of the Orthodox Church",'' and that he also had a certificate from the President of the Methodist Community, duly notarized, stating that he was a man ''"of high calling and of a religious life".''<ref name=MANOLIS>Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.464-480.</ref> Citing the Biblical exhortation ''"...the one who comes to Me I will certainly not cast out"'' (John 6:37), the Metropolitan concluded that Robert should be baptised, chrismated, ordained, and sent back to America in order to ''"carry the light of the Orthodox faith among his racial brothers".'' <br />
<br />
===Baptism and Ordination===<br />
On Friday August 2, 1907 the Holy Synod approved that the Baptism take place the following Sunday in the ''Church of the Lifegiving Source'' at the Patriarchal Monastery at Valoukli, in Constantinople.<ref>The Patriarchal Monastery at Valoukli is where the cemetery with the graves of the Patriarchs is found.</ref> Metropolitan Joachim (Phoropoulos) of Pelagonia was to officiate at the sacrament, and the sponsor was to be Bishop Leontios (Liverios) of Theodoroupolis, Abbott of the Monastery at Valoukli. On Sunday August 4, 1907, Robert was baptised "Raphael" before 3000 people;<ref name="MATHER"/> subsequently he was ordained a deacon on August 12, 1907 by Metropolitan Joachim; and finally ordained a priest on the feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos, August 15, 1907.<ref>In a letter from the Chief Archivist of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, dated April 4, 1973, it was confirmed that the records of the Patriarchate show that Morgan was baptized and renamed "Raphael". (Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.467.)</ref> According to the contemporary Uniate periodical ''L'Echo d' Orient'', which sarcastically described Morgan's Baptism of triple immerson, the Metropolitan conducted the sacraments of Baptism and Ordination in the English language, following which Fr. Raphael chanted the Divine Liturgy in English.<ref>''Une Conquete du Patriarcat Oecumenique.'' ''' ''Echos d'Orient'' '''. Vol. XI. No.68, 1908, pp.55-56.</ref> Fr. Raphael Morgan's conversion to the Greek Orthodox Church made him the first African American Orthodox priest. <br />
<br />
Fr. Raphael was sent back to America with vestments, a cross, and 20 pounds sterling for his traveling expenses. He was allowed to hear confessions, but denied Holy Chrism and an antimension, presumably to attach his missionary ministry to the Philadelphia church. The minutes of the Holy Synod from October 2, 1907, made it clear in fact that Fr. Raphael was to be under the jurisdiction of Rev. Petrides of Philadelphia, until such time as he had been trained in liturgics and was able to establish a separate Orthodox parish.<ref name="MANOLIS"/><br />
<br />
===Return to America===<br />
Ellis Island records indicate the arrival in New York from Naples, Italy, of the priest, Raffaele Morgan, in December 1907.<ref>Lumsden, Joy. ''[http://jamaicanhistorymonth2007.moonfruit.com/#/father-raphael/4520858082 Robert Josias Morgan, aka Father Raphael].'' '''Jamaican History Month 2007.''' February 16, 2007.</ref> Once home, Fr. Raphael baptized his wife and children in the Orthodox Church. This is noted in the minutes of the Holy Synod of February 9, 1908, which acknowledges receipt of a communication from Fr. Raphael.<br />
<br />
The last mention of Fr. Raphael in Patriarchal records is in the minutes of the Holy Synod of November 4, 1908, which cite a letter from Fr. Raphael recommending an Anglican priest of Philadelphia, named "A.C.V. Cartier",<ref>A.C.V. Cartier was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate by Bishop Charles Quintard in 1895, and ordained to the Episcopal priesthood in the same year by Bishop Quintard. (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> as a candidate for conversion to Orthodoxy and ordination as a priest. Cartier was rector of the [http://www.aecst.org/home.htm African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas], in Philadelphia, from 1906-12.<ref>George Alexander McGuire was rector of The African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas in Philadelphia from 1902-05. He was succeeded as rector by A.C.V. Cartier (1906-12), the man whom Morgan recommended to the Ecumenical Patriarchate for Orthodox ordination.</ref> Saint Thomas' served the African American elite of Philadelphia and was one of the most prestigious congregations in African American Christianity, having been started in 1794 by Absalom Jones, one of the founders, together with Richard Allen, of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.<ref name=Martin>Tony Martin. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004. p.776.</ref> According to the letter, Cartier desired as an Orthodox priest to undertake missionary work among his fellow blacks. Due to the fact that the jurisdiction over the Greek Church of the diaspora had been ceded by the Ecumenical Patriarchate to the Church of Greece in 1908, the request was forwarded there. However according to Greek-American historian Paul G. Manolis, a search of the Archives of the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece did not turn up any correspondence with Fr. Raphael. His letter about A.C.V. Cartier is the only indication we have from Church records of his missionary efforts among his people.<ref name="MANOLIS"/><br />
<br />
In 1909, his wife filed for divorce, on the alleged charges of cruelty and failure to support their children. She left with their son Cyril to Delaware County, where she remarried.<br />
<br />
===Monastic Tonsure===<br />
In 1911 Fr. Raphael sailed to Cyprus, presumably to be tonsured a hieromonk. Possibly somewhere around this time, he founded the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha'' (O.C.G.).<ref name="Order"/> However, Fr. Oliver Herbel (AOC) has suggested that in 1911 Fr. Raphael was tonsured in Athens.<ref>Fr. Oliver Herbel (AOC). ''[http://www.ocanews.org/Herbeljurisdiction4.22.09.html Jurisdictional Disunity and the Russian Mission].'' '''Orthodox Christians for Accountability'''. April 22, 2009.</ref> As is noted above however, the Archives of the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece contain no information about Fr. Raphael.<br />
<br />
===Lecture Tour in Jamaica===<br />
The ''Jamaica Times'' article of April 26, 1913, wrote that Fr. Raphael was headquartered at Philadelphia where he wanted to build a chapel for his missionary efforts, that he had recently visited Europe to collect funds to this end, and had the intention of extending his work to the West Indies.<ref>''The Jamaica Times''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Only Negro Who is a Greek Priest].'' April 26, 1913.</ref><br />
<br />
Near the end of 1913, Fr. Raphael visited his homeland of Jamaica, staying for several months until sometime the next year. While there, he met a group of Syrians, who were complaining of a lack of Orthodox churches on the island. Fr. Raphael did his best to contact the Syrian-American diocese of the Russian church, writing to St. Raphael of Brooklyn, but as most of their descendants are now communicants in the Episcopal Church, this presumably came to no avail. In December, a Russian warship came to port, and he concelebrated the Divine Liturgy with the sailors, their chaplain, and his new-found Syrians.<br />
<br />
The main work of his visit, however, was a lecture circuit that he ran throughout Jamaica. Citing a lack of Orthodox churches, Fr. Raphael would speak at churches of various denomination. The topics would usually cover his travels, the Holy Land, and Holy Orthodoxy. At some point, he even made it to his hometown of Chapelton, to whom he remarked of his name change, ''"I will always be Robert to you".''<ref>''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id6.html Gives Lecture. Fr. Raphael Talks of His Travels Abroad.]'' August 15, 1913.</ref><br />
<br />
According to the ''Daily Gleaner'' edition of November 2, 1914, Fr. Raphael had just set sail back for America to start mission work under his Faith.<ref>''"Father Raphael, Priest of the Greek Orthodox Church, who has been in the island for some time, sailed for America last week. It is understood that he will return shortly to his native land and start mission work under his Faith. As is well known, the seat of the Greek Church to which father Raphael belongs is not far from the theatre of war, so there is no hope of the Father returning to his Mother Church in a hurry. Father Raphael is a native of Clarendon."'' (''The Daily Gleaner.'' November 2, 1914. p.13.)</ref><br />
<br />
===Last Known Records===<br />
In 1916 Fr. Raphael was still in Philadelphia, having made the Philadelphia Greek parish his base of operations.<ref>Namee, Matthew. ''[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?p=244 The First Black Orthodox Priest in America].'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Christian History in the Americas). July 15, 2009.</ref> The last documentation of Fr. Raphael comes from a letter to the ''Daily Gleaner'' on October 4, 1916. Representing a group of about a dozen other like-minded Jamaican-Americans, he wrote in to protest the lectures of Black Nationalist Marcus Garvey.<ref>Fr. Raphael signed the letter as ''' ''"Father Raphael, O.C.G., Priest-Apostolic, the Greek-Orthodox Catholic Church."'' '''The full text of the signed letter is printed in:<br>Robert A. Hill, Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''Letter Denouncing Marcus Garvey.'' In: '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].''' University of California Press, 1983. pp.196-197.</ref> Garvey's views on Jamaica, they felt, were damaging to both the reputation of their homeland and its people, enumerating several objections to Garvey's stated preference for the prejudice of the American whites over that of English whites.<ref name=Oliver/> Garvey's response came ten days later, in which he called the letter a conspiratorial fabrication meant to undermine the success and favour he had gained while in Jamaica and in the United States.<br />
<br />
Little is known of Fr. Raphael's life after this point, except from some interviews conducted in the 1970s between Greek-American historian Paul G. Manolis and surviving members of the [http://evangelismos.us/default.aspx Greek Community of the Annunciation] in Philadelphia, who recalled the black priest who was evidently a part of their community for a period of time. One elderly woman, Grammatike Kritikos Sherwin, remembered that Fr. Raphael's daughter left to attend Oxford; another parishioner, Kyriacos Biniaris, recalls that Morgan, whose hand "he kissed many times", spoke broken Greek and served with Fr. Petrides reciting the liturgy mostly in English; whilst another, a George Liacouras, recalled that after serving in Philadelphia for some years, Fr. Raphael left for Jerusalem, never to return.<ref name="MANOLIS"/> The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America has no record either of Fr. Raphael Morgan, nor of Fr. Demetrios Petrides, as the first records for the Philadelphia community in the archives only began in 1918.<br />
<br />
==Influence==<br />
==="Indirect Conversion of Thousands" Theory===<br />
During the ''16th Annual Ancient Christianity and African-American Conference'' in 2009, Matthew Namee presented a 23-minute lecture on the heretofore recently discovered life of Fr. Raphael Morgan. He postulates that even if Fr. Raphael's missionary efforts failed outside of his immediate family, he may be indirectly responsible for the conversion of thousands, via contact with Episcopal priest George Alexander McGuire (1866-1934).<br />
<br />
Records for [http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St Philip's Episcopal Church] in Richmond, Virgina indicate that for a short while in 1901 Robert J. Morgan was listed as the Rector. However, being only a deacon, this would mean that Robert's position was only temporary, during an interregnum of sorts. The previous rector was one George Alexander McGuire.<br><br />
<br />
'''African Orthodox Church'''<br><br />
George McGuire became an associate of Marcus Garvey and his Black Nationalist UNIA movement, being appointed the first Chaplain-General of the organization at its inaugural international convention in New York in August 1920. On September 28, 1921, he was made a bishop of the American Catholic Church by Joseph René Vilatte, and soon after founded the African Orthodox Church, a non-canonical Black Nationalist church, in the Anglican tradition. Today, it is best known for its canonisation of Jazz legend John Coltrane.<br />
<br />
Bishop George McGuire soon spread his African Orthodox Church throughout the United States, and soon even made a presence on the African continent in such countries as Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Between 1924-1934 McGuire built the AOC into a thriving international church. Branches were eventually established in Canada, Barbados, Cuba, South Africa, Uganda, Kenya, Miami, Chicago, Harlem, Boston, Cambridge (Massachusetts), and elsewhere. The official organ of AOC, ''The Negro Churchman,'' became an effective link for the far-flung organization.<ref name="Martin"/> However, around the time of the Second World War, the African churches were cut off from the American and in the post-war period had drifted far enough way to request and come under the omophorion of the Church of Alexandria.<br />
<br />
'''Fr. Raphael and George McGuire'''<br><br />
Namee questions whence the idea came for McGuire to form namely an ''Orthodox'' church. Fr. Raphael Morgan and George McGuire have some striking similarities, including the facts that both:<br />
* served concurrently or consecutively at [http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St Philip's Episcopal Church] in Virginia,<ref>[http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St. Philip’s Episcopal Church] of Richmond, Virginia lists Morgan as having been the rector of their parish for a short time in 1901. He is listed as the rector from “1901-April 1901.” Morgan’s predecessor at St. Philip’s was a certain “Reverend George Alexander McQuire,” who served the parish from April 1898 to November 1900.</ref> <br />
* were ordained in the Episcopal Church around the same time,<ref>Rev. Morgan was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate on June 20, 1895, by Bishop Leighton Coleman. George McGuire was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate on June 29, 1896 by Bishop Boyd Vincent, and to the Episcopal priesthood in 1897 by the same. (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> and <br />
* both later served in Philadelphia, each having had some contact with Rev. A.C.V. Cartier of the [http://www.aecst.org/home.htm African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas].<br />
<br />
Namee concludes that with so many coincidences, it is impossible for these two men to not have known one another; and therefore it must be from some influence - either in conversation with Fr. Raphael or through evangelism - that McGuire received his inspiration and came to know the Orthodox Church. An additional point is that Garvey already knew of Fr. Raphael when McGuire joined his organization in 1920 (since Fr. Raphael had written the letter in 1916 protesting Garvey's lectures), which makes it likely that McGuire and Garvey had discussed Morgan at some point, especially as they were interested in forming an independent African-American Church.<br />
<br />
One deterrent from this theory comes in the familiarity he had with the Orthodox Church by McGuire's ''consecrator'', Joseph René Vilatte.<ref>In his quest to obtain valid Apostolic Orders, Fr. McGuire had himself re-ordained Bishop in the ''American Catholic Church'', being consecrated on September 28, 1921, in Chicago, Illinois, by Archbishop Joseph René Vilatte, assisted by bishop Carl A. Nybladh who had been consecrated by Vilatte. However the Orthodox Church considers Villate to be an Episcopi vagantes.</ref> At various points, Vilatte come into contact with both the Russian and Syriac Orthodox Churches in a move for Catholic-Orthodox reconciliation, having even been accepted for a while by Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov) of the Aleutians, Alaska, in May of 1891.<br />
<br />
===Legacy===<br />
Scholar Gavin White, writing in the 1970's, states that if Morgan tried to organize an African-American Greek Orthodox church in Philadelphia, its memory has vanished, and nothing whatsoever is known about Morgan in later years. However he hastens to add that: <br />
:"...there can be no doubt that McGuire knew all about Morgan and it is very probable that he knew him personally. It is just possible that it was Morgan who first introduced McGuire to the Episcopal Church in Wilmington; it was almost certainly Morgan who introduced McGuire to the idea of Eastern episcopacy.<ref name="WHITE"/> <br />
This concurs with Matthew Namee's conclusion above, that it was Fr. Raphael who was George Alexander McGuire's inspiration to form namely an "Orthodox" church. In time the African-based portion of McGuire's ''"African Orthodox Church"'' in Kenya and Uganda, eventually did end up under the canonical jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa in 1946. And although those two churches were already upon their own set path towards full canonical Orthodoxy, McGuire was an important part of that process at one stage, and Fr. Raphael Morgan in turn was behind McGuire's inspiration to form an "Orthodox" church. In this regard, by planting the seed, it can be said that Fr. Raphael was also in some measure indirectly part of that process as well. <br />
<br />
In the end, while Fr. Raphael Morgan's work among Jamaicans in Philadelphia appears to have been transitory, nevertheless he did serve as an important precedent for current African American interest in Orthodoxy, especially that of Father [http://unexpectedjoychurch.org/administration.html Moses Berry], director of the [http://www.oaahm.org/index.html Ozarks African American Heritage Museum], who served as the priest to the [http://unexpectedjoychurch.org/ Theotokos, the “Unexpected Joy,” Orthodox Mission] (OCA) in Ash Grove, Missouri.<ref name=Oliver/><br />
<br />
==References== <br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://evangelismos.us/default.aspx Evangelismos Greek Orthodox Church], Philadelphia, PA. ''(Fr. Raphael's home parish, ca.~1905-1916)''<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
'''Contemporary Sources'''<br />
* Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922.<br />
* Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Afro-American Clergy List. Priests''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/afroamericanchur00bragiala Afro-American Church Work and Workers].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Print, 1904.<br />
* Hill, Robert A., Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].'' University of California Press, 1983. ISBN 9780520044562<br />
* Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. <br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html West Africa]''. October 9, 1901. p.7.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id3.html Priest's Visit: Father Raphael of Greek Orthodox Church: His Extensive Travels].'' July 22, 1913.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id6.html Gives Lecture. Fr. Raphael Talks of His Travels Abroad.]'' August 15, 1913.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' November 2, 1914. p.13.<br />
* ''The Jamaica Times''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Only Negro Who is a Greek Priest].'' April 26, 1913.<br />
* ''Une Conquete du Patriarcat Oecumenique.'' ''' ''Echos d'Orient'' '''. Vol. XI. No.68, 1908, pp.55-56. <br />
:(''Publication of the Roman Catholic Uniate Assumptionist Fathers, located in Chalcedon'')<br />
'''Modern Sources'''<br />
* Herbel, Fr. Oliver (AOC). ''[http://www.ocanews.org/Herbeljurisdiction4.22.09.html Jurisdictional Disunity and the Russian Mission].'' '''Orthodox Christians for Accountability'''. April 22, 2009.<br />
* Herbel, Fr. Oliver (AOC). ''Morgan, Raphael.'' '''[http://www.mywire.com/a/African-American-National-Biography/Morgan-Raphael/9463563?&pbl=27 The African American National Biography]''' at '''mywire.com'''. 1-Jan-2008.<br />
* ''Joseph René Vilatte'' at Wikipedia.<br />
* Lumsden, Joy, MA (Cantab), PhD (UWI). ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/index.html Father Raphael].''<br />
* Lumsden, Joy. ''[http://jamaicanhistorymonth2007.moonfruit.com/#/father-raphael/4520858082 Robert Josias Morgan, aka Father Raphael].'' '''Jamaican History Month 2007.''' February 16, 2007.<br />
* Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.464-480. ISSN: 1105-154X<br />
* Martin, Tony. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?p=244 The First Black Orthodox Priest in America].'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Christian History in the Americas). July 15, 2009.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''[http://ancientfaith.com/specials/16th_ancient_christianity_african-american_conference/matthew_namee/ Fr. Raphael Morgan: America's First Black Orthodox Priest.]'' '''16th Annual Ancient Christianity & African-American Conference'''. June 03, 2009.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''"[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?cat=58 Robert Josias Morgan visits Russia, 1904]."'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Chrisitan History in the Americas). September 15, 2009.<br />
* White, Gavin. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Episcopal Church.'' In: Randall K. Burkett and Richard Newman (Eds.). '''Black Apostles: Afro-American Clergy Confront the Twentieth Century.''' G. K. Hall, 1978. pp.151-180.<br />
<br />
:''Derived with permission from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Raphael+Morgan&oldid=87671 Raphael Morgan] at [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki].''</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Raphael_Morgan&diff=39968Raphael Morgan2009-09-22T20:51:31Z<p>Angellight 888: new article</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Raphael_Morgan.jpg|right|frame|Source: ''The Daily Gleaner'' (Kingston, Jamaica). [[July 22]], 1913.]]<br />
<br />
Very Rev. '''Raphael Morgan''' (born '''Robert Josias Morgan''', 186x/187x - 19xx) was a Jamaican-American priest of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], designated as ''"Priest-Apostolic"'' to America and the West Indies,<ref>According to Fr. Raphael's biography in the ''Who's Who of the Colored Race'', 1915, after he was ordained to the priesthood:<br><br />
:"...at a special service he was duly commissioned Priest-Apostolic from the Ecumenical and Patriarchal Throne of Constantinople to America and the West Indies."<br><br />
(Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. p.226.)</ref><ref>Robert A. Hill, Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''Letter Denouncing Marcus Garvey.'' In: '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].''' University of California Press, 1983. pg.197.</ref> later the founder and superior of the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha'',<ref name="Order">The ''"Order of...",'' could be a number of things; it could be 1) an honorarium bestowed upon him for service done in the Church; or 2) an entitling which lets others know of his special mission in the Patriarchate/Diocese etc.; it could also 3) refer to a Society of monastics which transcends, because of rare circumstances, physical location; in addition, it is also possible that this was 4) a monastic brotherhood formed for Black Orthodox Christians, since Morgan was referred to as the ''“founder and superior”'' of that religious fraternity, although the formation of formal monastic orders is not traditionally practiced in the Orthodox tradition. The Orthodox Church does not have separate Orders (Franciscan, Carmelite etc.) each with an entirely independent rule/ethos of life. Despite being mentioned on many occasions in association with Morgan, no other material has ever been found on the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha''.</ref> and thought to be the first Black Orthodox clergyman in America. <br />
<br />
He spoke broken Greek, and therefore served mostly in English. Having recently been discovered, his life has garnered great interest, but much of his life still remains shrouded in mystery. <br />
<br />
Fr. Raphael is said to have resided all over the world, including: "in Palestine, Syria, Joppa, Greece, Cyprus, Mytilene, Chios, Sicily, Crete, Egypt, Russia, Ottoman Turkey, Austria, Germany, England, France, Scandinavia, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Switzerland, Bermuda, and the United States."<ref name=MATHER>Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. pp.226-227.</ref><br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Robert Josias Morgan was born in Chapelton, Clarence Parish, Jamaica either in the late 1860s or early 1870s to Robert Josias and Mary Ann (née Johnson) Morgan. He was born six months after his father's death, and named in his honour. Robert was raised in the Anglican tradition and was received elementary schooling locally.<ref name="MATHER"/> <br />
<br />
In his teenage years he travelled to Colón, Panama, then to British Honduras, back to Jamaica, and then to the United States. He became a minister in the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) and left as a missionary to Germany.<ref name="MATHER"/><br />
<br />
===Period in the Church of England===<br />
He then came to England, where he joined the Church of England and was sent to Sierra Leona to the Church Missionary Society Grammar School at Freetown. He studied Greek, Latin, and other higher-level subjects. Being poor, Robert had to work to support himself, and worked as second master of a public school in Freetown. He took course in the Church Missionary Society College at Fourah Bay in Freetown, and was soon appointed a missionary teacher and lay-reader by the Episcopalian Bishop of Liberia, the Right Reverend Samuel David Ferguson.<ref name="MATHER"/> Robert later said during a trip to Jamaica in 1901 that he served five years in West Africa, of which he spent three years in missionary work.<ref name="West Africa">''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html West Africa]''. October 9, 1901. p.7.</ref><br />
<br />
After this Robert again visited England for private study, and then travelled to America to work amongst the African-American community as a lay-reader. He was accepted as a Postulant and as candidate for the Episcopalian deaconate. During the canonical period of waiting period before ordination, Robert again returned to England to study at Saint Aidan's Theological College in Birkenhead, and finally prosecuted his studies at King's College of the University of London.<ref name="MATHER"/> The colleges however do not contain records of his attendance.<ref>It is possible that he academically audited the courses, attending the classes without receiving a formal grade.</ref> <br />
<br />
===Period in the Episcopal Church===<br />
He returned to America, and on June 20, 1895 was ordained as deacon<ref name="note">Fr. Raphael's name is given on a list of Black Episcopal ordinations as follows: ''"1895: Robert Josias Morgan, d. June 20, Coleman; deposed; went abroad and was made a priest in Greek Church."'' (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> by the Rt. Rev. Leighton Coleman,<ref>The ''New York Times''. ''[http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D0DE1DF1639E333A25756C1A9649D946697D6CF Bishop Coleman of Delaware Dies].'' Sunday December 15, 1907. Page 13. (Obituary)</ref> Bishop of the Episcopalian Diocese of Delaware, and a well-known opponent of racism. Robert was appointed honorary curate in St Matthews' Church in Wilminton, Delaware, serving there from 1896 to 1897,<ref name=WHITE>White, Gavin. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Episcopal Church.'' In: Randall K. Burkett and Richard Newman (Eds.). '''Black Apostles: Afro-American Clergy Confront the Twentieth Century.''' G. K. Hall, 1978. pp.151-180.</ref> and procured a job as a teacher for a few public schools in Delaware. From 1897 he served at Charleston, West Virginia.<ref name="WHITE"/><br />
<br />
In 1898, the deacon Robert (Rev. R.J. Morgan) was transferred to the Missionary Jurisdiction of Ashville (now in the Diocese of Western North Carolina). By 1899 he was listed as being assistant minister at [http://www.diocesewnc.org/index.php?content=300.00&city=Morganton St. Stephen's Chapel] in Morganton, North Carolina, and [http://www.asecnc.org/StCyp.html St. Cyprian's Church] in Lincolnton, North Carolina.<ref>Lumsden, Joy, MA (Cantab), PhD (UWI). ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Father Raphael: His Background and Career].'' September 29, 2007.</ref><ref name="note">St. Cyprian's Episcopal Church was established in 1886. The church once stood on West Church in Lincolnton. The property consisted of a church, a parsonage, and a building used as a school. The church was torn down during the 1970's. The <br />
church remained primarily black and was not integrated until 1979. (Jason L. Harpe. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=UJx5c2FRfosC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false Lincoln County Revisited].'' Illustrated. Arcadia Publishing, 2003. pg.18.)</ref><br />
<br />
In 1901-1902 Rev. R. J. Morgan made a visit to his homeland Jamaica. In October 1901 he gave an address to the Jamaica Church Missionary Union, on West Africa and mission work.<ref name="West Africa"/> He also gave a lecture in Port Maria, Jamaica in October 1902, entitled ''"Africa - lts people, Tribes, Idolatry, Customs."''<ref>''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html Port Maria: A Lecture]''. October 7, 1902. p.29.</ref><br />
<br />
From 1902 to 1905 Deacon Morgan served at Richmond, Virginia; in 1905 at Nashville, Tennessee; and by 1906 at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania with his address care of the ''Church of the Crucifixion''.<ref name="WHITE"/> <br />
<br />
At some point during this period he joined an off-shoot of the Episcopalian Church, known as the ''"American Catholic Church"'' (''ACC''), a sect founded by Joseph René Vilatte.<ref name="note">The ''"American Catholic Church"'' (ACC) included the jurisdictions and groups which had come out of [[w:Joseph René Vilatte|Joseph René Vilatte's]] Episcopal ministry or were under his oversight. Among them were French and English speaking constituencies, and Polish and Italian ordinariates. The ACC began on August 20, 1894, at a synod held in Cleveland, Ohio, where Polish-speaking parishes joined the jurisdiction of Bishop Vilatte, however the ACC was actually incorporated in July 1915.</ref> He is listed in the records of the Episcopal Church of the USA as late as 1908, when he was suspended from ministry on the allegations of abandoning his post.<br />
<br />
==Orthodoxy==<br />
===Trip to Russia===<br />
By the turn of the 20th century, Robert seriously began to question his faith, and began intensive study of Anglicanism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy over a three year period, to discover what he felt was the true religion. He concluded that the Orthodox Church was "the pillar and ground of truth", resigned from the Episcopalian Church, and embarked on an extensive trip abroad beginning in the Russian Empire in 1904.<ref name="MATHER"/><br />
<br />
Once there, Robert visited various monasteries and churches, including sites in Odessa, St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kiev, soon becoming quite the sensation. Sundry periodicals began publishing pictures and articles on him, and soon Robert became the Special Guest of the Tsar. He was allowed to be present for the anniversary celebrations of Nicholas II's coronation, and the memorial service said for the repose of the soul of the late Emperor Alexander III.<ref>''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id3.html Priest's Visit: Father Raphael of Greek Orthodox Church: His Extensive Travels].'' July 22, 1913.</ref><br />
<br />
Leaving Russia, Robert traveled Turkey, Cyprus, and the Holy Land, returning to America and writing an article to the ''Russian-American Orthodox Messenger'' (''Vestnik'') in 1904 about his experience in Russia. In this open letter, Morgan expressed hope that the Anglican Church could unite with the Orthodox Churches, clearly moved by his experience in Russia.<ref>Upon Morgan's departure from Russia, he wrote a letter, which was reprinted in the October/November 1904 English supplement to the ''Vestnik'' (Russian Orthodox American Messenger), the official publication of the Russian Archdiocese in America. Here is the text of that letter:<br><br />
:I, Robert Josias Morgan, a legally consecrated cleric of the American Episcopal Church, find it necessary to make it publicly known, that I am not a Bishop, as it was announced in some magazines and daily papers…<br><br />
:… I am not a Bishop, but a legally consecrated deacon. I came to Russia in no way to represent anything, and I was not sent by anybody. I came as a simple tourist, chiefly with the object to see the churches and the monasteries of this country, to enjoy the ritual and the service of the holy Orthodox Church, about which I heard so much abroad. And I am perfectly satisfied with everything I saw and witnessed.<br><br />
:The piety and the fear of God amongst the Russian clergy, both superior and lower, and of the lay people in general are too great to be spoken of. I like Russia, and as to the people I have simply grown to love them for their gentleness, their politeness, their amiability and kindness. It would seem as if the Christian religion penetrated the whole life of the people. This can be observed both in the private home life and the social life. You have but to go to Church in this country, and you immediately see, that there is nothing too valuable for the people to be offered to God. Note how they pray, how patiently they stand through the long Church services…<br><br />
:Now, having spent here about a month, I leave your country with a feeling of profound gratitude and take back to North America all the good impressions I received here. And when there I shall speak boldly and loudly about the brotherly feelings entertained here in the bosom of the holy Orthodox Church towards its Anglican sister of North America, and about the prayers which are offered here daily for the union of all the Catholic Christendom.<br><br />
:My constant humble prayer is for the union of all Churches, and especially the union of the Anglican faith with the Orthodox Church of Russia. I solicited the Metropolitans and the Bishops to grant me their blessing in regard to this prayer and obtained it. Now I pray daily and eagerly for a better mutual understanding between the character and their union. God grant a blessing to this cause and a hearing to our prayers and supplications. Let us solicit the prayers of the Saints. Let us seek the intercession of the holy Mother of God. Virgin Mary, pray for us!<br><br />
:In conclusion I must say, that my stay in Russia did me personally much good: I feel now firmer and stronger spiritually than I did before I came.<br><br />
:God bless the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of this country! God bless the Emperor and all the reigning family! God grant them a long life, peace and prosperity!<br><br />
:I am sincerely yours in God and in the name of Mary,<br><br />
:Robert Josias Morgan.<br><br />
(Matthew Namee. ''"[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?cat=58 Robert Josias Morgan visits Russia, 1904]."'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Chrisitan History in the Americas). September 15, 2009.)</ref> People of African descent were generally well-received within the Russian Empire, Morgan believed. Abram Hannibal had served under Emperor Peter the Great, and rose to lieutenant general in the Russian Army. Visiting artists, foreign service officials, and athletes, such as famous horse jockey Jimmy Winkfield, were likewise welcomed. With his experience of Russia and Russian Orthodoxy fresh in his mind, Morgan returned to the United States and continued his spiritual quest.<ref name=Oliver>Fr. Oliver Herbel. ''Morgan, Raphael.'' '''[http://www.mywire.com/a/African-American-National-Biography/Morgan-Raphael/9463563?&pbl=27 The African American National Biography]''' at '''mywire.com'''. 1-Jan-2008.</ref><br />
<br />
===Study and Trip to Ecumenical Patriarchate===<br />
For another three years, Robert studied under Greek priests for his baptism,<ref name="MATHER"/> eventually deciding to seek entry and ordination in the Greek Orthodox Church. In January of 1906, he is documented as ''assisting'' in the Christmas Divine Liturgy.<ref>The ''Philadelphia Inquirer'' reported on January 8, 1906, that ''“Rev. R.J. Morgan of the American Catholic Church, an off-shoot of the Protestant Episcopal Church, assisted.”''</ref> In 1907 the Philadephia Greek community referred Robert to the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] in Constantinople armed with two letters of support. One was a recommendation from Fr. Demetrios Petrides, the Greek priest then serving the Philadelphia community, dated 18 June 1907, who described Morgan as a man sincerely coming into Orthodoxy after long and diligent study, and recommending his baptism and ordination into the priesthood. The second letter of support was from the "Ecclesiastical Committee" of the Philadelphia Greek Orthodox Church, stating he could serve as an assistant priest if he failed to form a separate Orthodox parish among his fellow Black Americans.<ref>Summaries of the two letters are given in the Synodal Minutes of 19 July, 1907, presided over by Patriarch Joachim III of Constantinople, who introduced the subject of Morgan's baptism and ordination. As is stated in the second letter, Morgan's goal was to establish an Orthodox community of Blacks (''' ''"...να πηξη ιδιαν ορθοδοξον κοινοτητα μεταξυ των εν Αμερικη ομοφυλων αυτου Νιγρητων..."'' ''').</ref><br />
<br />
In Constantinople, Robert was interviewed by Metropolitan Joachim (Phoropoulos) of Pelagonia, one of the few bishops of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] that could speak English and among the most learned of the Constantinopolitan hierarchs of that time. Metropolitan Joachim examined Robert, noting that he had a ''"deep knowledge of the teachings of the Orthodox Church",'' and that he also had a certificate from the President of the Methodist Community, duly notarized, stating that he was a man ''"of high calling and of a religious life".''<ref name=MANOLIS>Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.464-480.</ref> Citing the Biblical exhortation ''"...the one who comes to Me I will certainly not cast out"'' (John 6:37), the Metropolitan concluded that Robert should be baptised, chrismated, ordained, and sent back to America in order to ''"carry the light of the Orthodox faith among his racial brothers".'' <br />
<br />
===Baptism and Ordination===<br />
On Friday August 2, 1907 the Holy Synod approved that the Baptism take place the following Sunday in the ''Church of the Lifegiving Source'' at the Patriarchal Monastery at Valoukli, in Constantinople.<ref>The Patriarchal Monastery at Valoukli is where the cemetery with the graves of the Patriarchs is found.</ref> Metropolitan Joachim (Phoropoulos) of Pelagonia was to officiate at the sacrament, and the sponsor was to be Bishop Leontios (Liverios) of Theodoroupolis, Abbott of the Monastery at Valoukli. On Sunday August 4, 1907, Robert was baptised "Raphael" before 3000 people;<ref name="MATHER"/> subsequently he was ordained a deacon on August 12, 1907 by Metropolitan Joachim; and finally ordained a priest on the feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos, August 15, 1907.<ref>In a letter from the Chief Archivist of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, dated April 4, 1973, it was confirmed that the records of the Patriarchate show that Morgan was baptized and renamed "Raphael". (Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.467.)</ref> According to the contemporary Uniate periodical ''L'Echo d' Orient'', which sarcastically described Morgan's Baptism of triple immerson, the Metropolitan conducted the sacraments of Baptism and Ordination in the English language, following which Fr. Raphael chanted the Divine Liturgy in English.<ref>''Une Conquete du Patriarcat Oecumenique.'' ''' ''Echos d'Orient'' '''. Vol. XI. No.68, 1908, pp.55-56.</ref> Fr. Raphael Morgan's conversion to the Greek Orthodox Church made him the first African American Orthodox priest. <br />
<br />
Fr. Raphael was sent back to America with vestments, a cross, and 20 pounds sterling for his traveling expenses. He was allowed to hear confessions, but denied Holy Chrism and an antimension, presumably to attach his missionary ministry to the Philadelphia church. The minutes of the Holy Synod from October 2, 1907, made it clear in fact that Fr. Raphael was to be under the jurisdiction of Rev. Petrides of Philadelphia, until such time as he had been trained in liturgics and was able to establish a separate Orthodox parish.<ref name="MANOLIS"/><br />
<br />
===Return to America===<br />
Ellis Island records indicate the arrival in New York from Naples, Italy, of the priest, Raffaele Morgan, in December 1907.<ref>Lumsden, Joy. ''[http://jamaicanhistorymonth2007.moonfruit.com/#/father-raphael/4520858082 Robert Josias Morgan, aka Father Raphael].'' '''Jamaican History Month 2007.''' February 16, 2007.</ref> Once home, Fr. Raphael baptized his wife and children in the Orthodox Church. This is noted in the minutes of the Holy Synod of February 9, 1908, which acknowledges receipt of a communication from Fr. Raphael.<br />
<br />
The last mention of Fr. Raphael in Patriarchal records is in the minutes of the Holy Synod of November 4, 1908, which cite a letter from Fr. Raphael recommending an Anglican priest of Philadelphia, named "A.C.V. Cartier",<ref>A.C.V. Cartier was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate by Bishop Charles Quintard in 1895, and ordained to the Episcopal priesthood in the same year by Bishop Quintard. (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> as a candidate for conversion to Orthodoxy and ordination as a priest. Cartier was rector of the [http://www.aecst.org/home.htm African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas], in Philadelphia, from 1906-12.<ref>George Alexander McGuire was rector of The African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas in Philadelphia from 1902-05. He was succeeded as rector by A.C.V. Cartier (1906-12), the man whom Morgan recommended to the Ecumenical Patriarchate for Orthodox ordination.</ref> Saint Thomas' served the African American elite of Philadelphia and was one of the most prestigious congregations in African American Christianity, having been started in 1794 by Absalom Jones, one of the founders, together with Richard Allen, of the African Methodist Episcopal Church.<ref name=Martin>Tony Martin. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004. p.776.</ref> According to the letter, Cartier desired as an Orthodox priest to undertake missionary work among his fellow blacks. Due to the fact that the jurisdiction over the Greek Church of the diaspora had been ceded by the Ecumenical Patriarchate to the Church of Greece in 1908, the request was forwarded there. However according to Greek-American historian Paul G. Manolis, a search of the Archives of the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece did not turn up any correspondence with Fr. Raphael. His letter about A.C.V. Cartier is the only indication we have from Church records of his missionary efforts among his people.<ref name="MANOLIS"/><br />
<br />
In 1909, his wife filed for divorce, on the alleged charges of cruelty and failure to support their children. She left with their son Cyril to Delaware County, where she remarried.<br />
<br />
===Monastic Tonsure===<br />
In 1911 Fr. Raphael sailed to Cyprus, presumably to be tonsured a hieromonk. Possibly somewhere around this time, he founded the ''Order of the Cross of Golgotha'' (O.C.G.).<ref name="Order"/> However, Fr. Oliver Herbel (AOC) has suggested that in 1911 Fr. Raphael was tonsured in Athens.<ref>Fr. Oliver Herbel (AOC). ''[http://www.ocanews.org/Herbeljurisdiction4.22.09.html Jurisdictional Disunity and the Russian Mission].'' '''Orthodox Christians for Accountability'''. April 22, 2009.</ref> As is noted above however, the Archives of the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece contain no information about Fr. Raphael.<br />
<br />
===Lecture Tour in Jamaica===<br />
The ''Jamaica Times'' article of April 26, 1913, wrote that Fr. Raphael was headquartered at Philadelphia where he wanted to build a chapel for his missionary efforts, that he had recently visited Europe to collect funds to this end, and had the intention of extending his work to the West Indies.<ref>''The Jamaica Times''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Only Negro Who is a Greek Priest].'' April 26, 1913.</ref><br />
<br />
Near the end of 1913, Fr. Raphael visited his homeland of Jamaica, staying for several months until sometime the next year. While there, he met a group of Syrians, who were complaining of a lack of Orthodox churches on the island. Fr. Raphael did his best to contact the Syrian-American diocese of the Russian church, writing to St. Raphael of Brooklyn, but as most of their descendants are now communicants in the Episcopal Church, this presumably came to no avail. In December, a Russian warship came to port, and he concelebrated the Divine Liturgy with the sailors, their chaplain, and his new-found Syrians.<br />
<br />
The main work of his visit, however, was a lecture circuit that he ran throughout Jamaica. Citing a lack of Orthodox churches, Fr. Raphael would speak at churches of various denomination. The topics would usually cover his travels, the Holy Land, and Holy Orthodoxy. At some point, he even made it to his hometown of Chapelton, to whom he remarked of his name change, ''"I will always be Robert to you".''<ref>''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id6.html Gives Lecture. Fr. Raphael Talks of His Travels Abroad.]'' August 15, 1913.</ref><br />
<br />
According to the ''Daily Gleaner'' edition of November 2, 1914, Fr. Raphael had just set sail back for America to start mission work under his Faith.<ref>''"Father Raphael, Priest of the Greek Orthodox Church, who has been in the island for some time, sailed for America last week. It is understood that he will return shortly to his native land and start mission work under his Faith. As is well known, the seat of the Greek Church to which father Raphael belongs is not far from the theatre of war, so there is no hope of the Father returning to his Mother Church in a hurry. Father Raphael is a native of Clarendon."'' (''The Daily Gleaner.'' November 2, 1914. p.13.)</ref><br />
<br />
===Last Known Records===<br />
In 1916 Fr. Raphael was still in Philadelphia, having made the Philadelphia Greek parish his base of operations.<ref>Namee, Matthew. ''[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?p=244 The First Black Orthodox Priest in America].'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Christian History in the Americas). July 15, 2009.</ref> The last documentation of Fr. Raphael comes from a letter to the ''Daily Gleaner'' on October 4, 1916. Representing a group of about a dozen other like-minded Jamaican-Americans, he wrote in to protest the lectures of Black Nationalist Marcus Garvey.<ref>Fr. Raphael signed the letter as ''' ''"Father Raphael, O.C.G., Priest-Apostolic, the Greek-Orthodox Catholic Church."'' '''The full text of the signed letter is printed in:<br>Robert A. Hill, Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''Letter Denouncing Marcus Garvey.'' In: '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].''' University of California Press, 1983. pp.196-197.</ref> Garvey's views on Jamaica, they felt, were damaging to both the reputation of their homeland and its people, enumerating several objections to Garvey's stated preference for the prejudice of the American whites over that of English whites.<ref name=Oliver/> Garvey's response came ten days later, in which he called the letter a conspiratorial fabrication meant to undermine the success and favour he had gained while in Jamaica and in the United States.<br />
<br />
Little is known of Fr. Raphael's life after this point, except from some interviews conducted in the 1970s between Greek-American historian Paul G. Manolis and surviving members of the [http://evangelismos.us/default.aspx Greek Community of the Annunciation] in Philadelphia, who recalled the black priest who was evidently a part of their community for a period of time. One elderly woman, Grammatike Kritikos Sherwin, remembered that Fr. Raphael's daughter left to attend Oxford; another parishioner, Kyriacos Biniaris, recalls that Morgan, whose hand "he kissed many times", spoke broken Greek and served with Fr. Petrides reciting the liturgy mostly in English; whilst another, a George Liacouras, recalled that after serving in Philadelphia for some years, Fr. Raphael left for Jerusalem, never to return.<ref name="MANOLIS"/> The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America has no record either of Fr. Raphael Morgan, nor of Fr. Demetrios Petrides, as the first records for the Philadelphia community in the archives only began in 1918.<br />
<br />
==Influence==<br />
==="Indirect Conversion of Thousands" Theory===<br />
During the ''16th Annual Ancient Christianity and African-American Conference'' in 2009, Matthew Namee presented a 23-minute lecture on the heretofore recently discovered life of Fr. Raphael Morgan. He postulates that even if Fr. Raphael's missionary efforts failed outside of his immediate family, he may be indirectly responsible for the conversion of thousands, via contact with Episcopal priest George Alexander McGuire (1866-1934).<br />
<br />
Records for [http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St Philip's Episcopal Church] in Richmond, Virgina indicate that for a short while in 1901 Robert J. Morgan was listed as the Rector. However, being only a deacon, this would mean that Robert's position was only temporary, during an interregnum of sorts. The previous rector was one George Alexander McGuire.<br><br />
<br />
'''African Orthodox Church'''<br><br />
George McGuire became an associate of Marcus Garvey and his Black Nationalist UNIA movement, being appointed the first Chaplain-General of the organization at its inaugural international convention in New York in August 1920. On September 28, 1921, he was made a bishop of the American Catholic Church by Joseph René Vilatte, and soon after founded the African Orthodox Church, a non-canonical Black Nationalist church, in the Anglican tradition. Today, it is best known for its canonisation of Jazz legend John Coltrane.<br />
<br />
Bishop George McGuire soon spread his African Orthodox Church throughout the United States, and soon even made a presence on the African continent in such countries as Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Between 1924-1934 McGuire built the AOC into a thriving international church. Branches were eventually established in Canada, Barbados, Cuba, South Africa, Uganda, Kenya, Miami, Chicago, Harlem, Boston, Cambridge (Massachusetts), and elsewhere. The official organ of AOC, ''The Negro Churchman,'' became an effective link for the far-flung organization.<ref name="Martin"/> However, around the time of the Second World War, the African churches were cut off from the American and in the post-war period had drifted far enough way to request and come under the omophorion of the Church of Alexandria.<br />
<br />
'''Fr. Raphael and George McGuire'''<br><br />
Namee questions whence the idea came for McGuire to form namely an ''Orthodox'' church. Fr. Raphael Morgan and George McGuire have some striking similarities, including the facts that both:<br />
* served concurrently or consecutively at [http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St Philip's Episcopal Church] in Virginia,<ref>[http://www.stphilipsrichmond.org/ St. Philip’s Episcopal Church] of Richmond, Virginia lists Morgan as having been the rector of their parish for a short time in 1901. He is listed as the rector from “1901-April 1901.” Morgan’s predecessor at St. Philip’s was a certain “Reverend George Alexander McQuire,” who served the parish from April 1898 to November 1900.</ref> <br />
* were ordained in the Episcopal Church around the same time,<ref>Rev. Morgan was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate on June 20, 1895, by Bishop Leighton Coleman. George McGuire was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate on June 29, 1896 by Bishop Boyd Vincent, and to the Episcopal priesthood in 1897 by the same. (Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922. p.273.)</ref> and <br />
* both later served in Philadelphia, each having had some contact with Rev. A.C.V. Cartier of the [http://www.aecst.org/home.htm African Episcopal Church of St. Thomas].<br />
<br />
Namee concludes that with so many coincidences, it is impossible for these two men to not have known one another; and therefore it must be from some influence - either in conversation with Fr. Raphael or through evangelism - that McGuire received his inspiration and came to know the Orthodox Church. An additional point is that Garvey already knew of Fr. Raphael when McGuire joined his organization in 1920 (since Fr. Raphael had written the letter in 1916 protesting Garvey's lectures), which makes it likely that McGuire and Garvey had discussed Morgan at some point, especially as they were interested in forming an independent African-American Church.<br />
<br />
One deterrent from this theory comes in the familiarity he had with the Orthodox Church by McGuire's ''consecrator'', Joseph René Vilatte.<ref>In his quest to obtain valid Apostolic Orders, Fr. McGuire had himself re-ordained Bishop in the ''American Catholic Church'', being consecrated on September 28, 1921, in Chicago, Illinois, by Archbishop Joseph René Vilatte, assisted by bishop Carl A. Nybladh who had been consecrated by Vilatte. However the Orthodox Church considers Villate to be an Episcopi vagantes.</ref> At various points, Vilatte come into contact with both the Russian and Syriac Orthodox Churches in a move for Catholic-Orthodox reconciliation, having even been accepted for a while by Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov) of the Aleutians, Alaska, in May of 1891.<br />
<br />
===Legacy===<br />
Scholar Gavin White, writing in the 1970's, states that if Morgan tried to organize an African-American Greek Orthodox church in Philadelphia, its memory has vanished, and nothing whatsoever is known about Morgan in later years. However he hastens to add that: <br />
:"...there can be no doubt that McGuire knew all about Morgan and it is very probable that he knew him personally. It is just possible that it was Morgan who first introduced McGuire to the Episcopal Church in Wilmington; it was almost certainly Morgan who introduced McGuire to the idea of Eastern episcopacy.<ref name="WHITE"/> <br />
This concurs with Matthew Namee's conclusion above, that it was Fr. Raphael who was George Alexander McGuire's inspiration to form namely an "Orthodox" church. In time the African-based portion of McGuire's ''"African Orthodox Church"'' in Kenya and Uganda, eventually did end up under the canonical jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa in 1946. And although those two churches were already upon their own set path towards full canonical Orthodoxy, McGuire was an important part of that process at one stage, and Fr. Raphael Morgan in turn was behind McGuire's inspiration to form an "Orthodox" church. In this regard, by planting the seed, it can be said that Fr. Raphael was also in some measure indirectly part of that process as well. <br />
<br />
In the end, while Fr. Raphael Morgan's work among Jamaicans in Philadelphia appears to have been transitory, nevertheless he did serve as an important precedent for current African American interest in Orthodoxy, especially that of Father [http://unexpectedjoychurch.org/administration.html Moses Berry], director of the [http://www.oaahm.org/index.html Ozarks African American Heritage Museum], who served as the priest to the [http://unexpectedjoychurch.org/ Theotokos, the “Unexpected Joy,” Orthodox Mission] (OCA) in Ash Grove, Missouri.<ref name=Oliver/><br />
<br />
==References== <br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
* [http://evangelismos.us/default.aspx Evangelismos Greek Orthodox Church], Philadelphia, PA. ''(Fr. Raphael's home parish, ca.~1905-1916)''<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
'''Contemporary Sources'''<br />
* Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Chapter XXXVI: Negro Ordinations from 1866 to the Present''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofafroame00brag History of the Afro-American group of the Episcopal church (1922)].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Press, 1922.<br />
* Bragg, Rev. George F. (D.D.). ''Afro-American Clergy List. Priests''. In: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/afroamericanchur00bragiala Afro-American Church Work and Workers].''' Baltimore, Md.: Church Advocate Print, 1904.<br />
* Hill, Robert A., Marcus Garvey, Universal Negro Improvement Association. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=CKJrUKdSZwkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: 1826-August 1919].'' University of California Press, 1983. ISBN 9780520044562<br />
* Mather, Frank Lincoln. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RFZ2AAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Who's Who of the Colored Race: A General Biographical Dictionary of Men and Women of African Descent].'' University of Michigan. Gale Research Co., 1915. <br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id10.html West Africa]''. October 9, 1901. p.7.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id3.html Priest's Visit: Father Raphael of Greek Orthodox Church: His Extensive Travels].'' July 22, 1913.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id6.html Gives Lecture. Fr. Raphael Talks of His Travels Abroad.]'' August 15, 1913.<br />
* ''The Daily Gleaner.'' November 2, 1914. p.13.<br />
* ''The Jamaica Times''. ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/id1.html Only Negro Who is a Greek Priest].'' April 26, 1913.<br />
* ''Une Conquete du Patriarcat Oecumenique.'' ''' ''Echos d'Orient'' '''. Vol. XI. No.68, 1908, pp.55-56. <br />
:(''Publication of the Roman Catholic Uniate Assumptionist Fathers, located in Chalcedon'')<br />
'''Modern Sources'''<br />
* Herbel, Fr. Oliver (AOC). ''[http://www.ocanews.org/Herbeljurisdiction4.22.09.html Jurisdictional Disunity and the Russian Mission].'' '''Orthodox Christians for Accountability'''. April 22, 2009.<br />
* Herbel, Fr. Oliver (AOC). ''Morgan, Raphael.'' '''[http://www.mywire.com/a/African-American-National-Biography/Morgan-Raphael/9463563?&pbl=27 The African American National Biography]''' at '''mywire.com'''. 1-Jan-2008.<br />
* ''Joseph René Vilatte'' at Wikipedia.<br />
* Lumsden, Joy, MA (Cantab), PhD (UWI). ''[http://www.joyousjam.com/fatherraphael/index.html Father Raphael].''<br />
* Lumsden, Joy. ''[http://jamaicanhistorymonth2007.moonfruit.com/#/father-raphael/4520858082 Robert Josias Morgan, aka Father Raphael].'' '''Jamaican History Month 2007.''' February 16, 2007.<br />
* Manolis, Paul G. ''Raphael (Robert) Morgan: The First Black Orthodox Priest in America''. '''Theologia: Epistēmonikon Periodikon Ekdidomenon Kata Trimēnian'''. (En Athenais: Vraveion Akadēmias Athēnōn), 1981, vol.52, no.3, pp.464-480. ISSN: 1105-154X<br />
* Martin, Tony. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=NgIYlUbaoAoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false McGuire, George Alexander].'' '''Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance'''. Volume 2. Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman (Eds.). Taylor & Francis, 2004.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?p=244 The First Black Orthodox Priest in America].'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Christian History in the Americas). July 15, 2009.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''[http://ancientfaith.com/specials/16th_ancient_christianity_african-american_conference/matthew_namee/ Fr. Raphael Morgan: America's First Black Orthodox Priest.]'' '''16th Annual Ancient Christianity & African-American Conference'''. June 03, 2009.<br />
* Namee, Matthew. ''"[http://orthodoxhistory.org/?cat=58 Robert Josias Morgan visits Russia, 1904]."'' '''OrthodoxHistory.org''' (The Society for Orthodox Chrisitan History in the Americas). September 15, 2009.<br />
* White, Gavin. ''Patriarch McGuire and the Episcopal Church.'' In: Randall K. Burkett and Richard Newman (Eds.). '''Black Apostles: Afro-American Clergy Confront the Twentieth Century.''' G. K. Hall, 1978. pp.151-180.</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Byzantine_Creation_Era&diff=39442Byzantine Creation Era2009-07-24T00:41:00Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Byzantine Creation Era''', also ''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople,"'' ''' or ''' ''"Era of the World"'' ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''' ''Έτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατά 'Ρωμαίους'' ''',<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''How Old is The World? The Byzantine Era and its Rivals''. Institute for World History, Moscow, Russia. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, Fiona K. Haarer, Judith Gilliland. '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=YWec0i621ekC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21-26 August, 2006: Vol. 3, Abstracts of Communications].''' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. pp. 23-24.</ref> also ''' ''Έτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου'' ''' or ''' ''Έτος Κόσμου'' ''') was the Calendar officially used by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] from ca. AD 691 to 1728 in the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], by the [[Byzantine Empire]]<ref>i.e. '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. The term Byzantine was invented by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1557 but was popularized by French scholars during the 18th century to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. The citizens of the empire considered themselves ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), their emperor was the "Roman Emperor", and their empire the ''Basileia ton Romaion'' ("Empire of the Romans"). The Latin West designated the empire as "Romania", and the Muslims as "Rum".</ref> from AD 988 to [[1453]], and in [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Russia Holy Russia] from ca. AD 988 to 1700. Its year one, the supposed date of creation, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC.<br />
<br />
Derived from the [[Septuagint]] version of the Bible, it placed the date of creation at 5,509 years before the Incarnation, and was characterized by a certain tendency which had already been a tradition amongst Hebrews and Jews to number the years ''from the foundation of the world''<ref>The phrase ''"Apo Kataboles Kosmou"'' (''"from the foundation of the world"'') occurs in Matthew 25:34, Luke 11:50, Hebrews 4:3, 9:26, and Revelation 13:8, 17:8.</ref> (Greek - ''‘Etos Kosmou/Apo Kataboles Kosmou’'', or Latin - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Annus Mundi]/‘Ab Origine Mundi’'' ('''AM''')).<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
We do not know who invented this era and when, however it appears for the first time in the treatise of a certain “monk and priest”, Georgios (AD 638-39), who mentions all the main variants of the ''"World Era"'' (''Ére Mondiale'') in his work.<ref>Fr. Diekamp, ''“Der Mönch und Presbyter Georgios, ein unbekannter Schriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts,”'' BZ 9 (1900) 14–51.</ref><ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.3.</ref>. Georgios makes it clear that the main advantage of the Byzantine era is the common starting point of the astronomical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar lunar and solar cycles], and of the cycle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indictions], the usual dating system in Byzantium since the sixth century. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus. Complex calculations of the 19-year lunar and 28-year solar cycles within this world era allowed scholars to discover the cosmic significance of certain historical dates, such as the birth of Christ or the Crucifixion.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Daily+Life+in+the+Byzantine+Empire ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.7</ref> <br />
<br />
This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the seventh century A.D., although its precursors were developed circa AD 412 (see [[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|''Alexandrian Era'']]). By the second half of the 7th century the ''Creation Era'' was known in the far West of Europe, in Britain.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4. (PL XC, 598, 877 (Pseudo‐Beda)).</ref> By the late tenth century around AD 988, when the era appears in use on offical government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world.<br />
<br />
The era was ultimately calculated as starting on [[September 1|September 1st]], and Jesus Christ was thought to have been born in the year 5509 ''Annus Mundi'' (AM) - the year since the creation of the world.<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref>. Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christ's birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'' since the date of Christ's birth was debated in Constantinople as late as the fourteenth century. Otherwise the ''Creation Era'' was identical to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]] except that: <br />
:*the names of the months were transcribed from Latin into Greek, <br />
:*the first day of the year was [[September 1]],<ref>About the year 462 the Byzantine [http://orthodoxwiki.org/IndictionIndiction] was moved from [[September 23]] to [[September 1]], where it remained throughout the rest of the Byzantine Empire, representing the present day beginning of the Church year. In [[537]] Justinian decreed that all dates must include the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indiction], so it was officially adopted as one way to identify a Byzantine year, becoming compulsory.</ref> so that both the Ecclesiatical and Civil calendar years ran from [[September 1|1 September]] to [[August 31|31 August]], (see [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]), which to the present day is the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church year]], and,<br />
:*the date of creation, '''its year one, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC'''.<br />
<br />
The ''Creation Era'' was gradually replaced in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] by the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'', which was utilized initially by Patriarch [[Theophanes I of Constantinople|Theophanes I Karykes]] in 1597, afterwards by Patriarch [[Cyril Lucaris]] in 1626, and then formally established by the Church in 1728.<ref>"Οικουμενικόν Πατριαρχείον", ΘHE, τόμ. 09, εκδ. Μαρτίνος Αθ., Αθήνα 1966, στ. 778.<br>(''"Ecumenical Patriarchate"''. '''Religious and Ethical Encyclopedia.''' Vol. 9., Athens, 1966. p.778.)</ref> Meanwhile as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the ''Creation Era'' (translated into Slavonic). After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the ''Creation Era'' continued to be used by Russia, which witnessed millennialist movements in Moscow in AD 1492 (7000 AM) due to the end of the church calendar. It was only in 1700 that the ''Creation Era'' in Russia was changed to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar] by Peter the Great.<ref>Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. ''The Literary Encyclopedia''. 25 September, 2008.</ref>. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today. September AD [[2000]] began the year 7509 AM.<ref>To convert our era to the Byzantine era, add 5509 years from September to December, and 5508 years from January to August.</ref><br />
<br />
===Earliest Christian Sources on the Age of the World===<br />
The earliest extant Christian writings on the age of the world according to the Biblical chronology are by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus]] (AD 115-181), the sixth bishop of Antioch from the Apostles, in his apologetic work ''To Autolycus'',<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).</ref> and by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245) in his ''Five Books of Chronology'' <ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''</ref>. Both of these early Christian writers, following the [[Septuagint]] version of the Old Testament, determined the age of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From a scholarly point of view Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] on this subject are of vital significance (''even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the [[Septuagint]], as compared to that of the Hebrew text''), in that through the Christian chronographers a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers<ref>Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275-194 B.C.) represented contemporary Alexandrian scholarship; Eupolemus, a Palestinian Jew and a friend of Judah Maccabee, writing in 158 B.C., is said to have been the first historian who synchronized Greek history in accordance with the theory of the Mosaic origin of culture. By the time of the first century B.C., a world chronicle had synchronized Jewish and Greek history and had gained international circulation: Alexander Polyhistor (flourishing in 85-35 B.C.); Varro (116-27 B.C.); Ptolemy of Mendes (50 B.C.); Apion (first century A.D.); Thrasyllus (before A.D. 36); and Thallus (first century A.D.) - all cited chronicles which had incorporated the dates of the Noachite flood and the exodus.</ref> is preserved:<br />
<br />
:An immense intellectual effort was expended during the Hellenistic period by both Jews and pagans to date creation, the flood, exodus, building of the Temple... In the course of their studies, men such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatian Tatian of Antioch]] (flourished in 180), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Clement_of_Alexandria Clement of Alexandria] (died before 215), [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (died in 235), [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]] of Jerusalem (died after 240), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in Palestine (260-340), and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers of the Hellenistic period, thereby allowing discernment of more distant scholarship.<ref>Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451-452.</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Hellenistic Jewish writer Demetrius (flourishing 221-204 B.C.) wrote ''On the Kings of Judea'' which dealt with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology; he computed the date of the flood and the birth of Abraham exactly as in the [[Septuagint]], and first established the '' '''Annus Adami''' - Era of Adam'', the antecedent of the Hebrew ''World Era'', and of the Alexandrian and Byzantine ''Creation Eras''.<br />
<br />
===Alexandrian Era===<br />
The ''' ''"Alexandrian Era"'' ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '' '''Κόσμου ετη κατ’ Αλεξανδρεις''' '' developed AD 412, was the precursor to the ''Byzantine Creation Era''. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others<ref>The ''' ''Era of Antioch'' ''' (5492 BC) and ''' ''Era of Alexandria'' ''' (5502 BC) were originally two different formations, differing by 10 years. They were both much in use by the early Christian writers attached to the Churches of Alexandria and Antioch. However after the year AD 284 the two eras coincided, settling on 5492 BC. (''"Epoch: Era of Antioch and Era of Alexandra."'' In: ''' ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' '''(Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841. p.73.)</ref>, the Alexandrian computation of the date of creation was worked out to be [[March 25|25 March]] 5493 BC.<ref>Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. p.73.</ref>. <br />
<br />
The Alexandrine monk Panodoros reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD 412. His years began with [[August 29]], corresponding to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thout First of Thoth], or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian]] new year.<ref>Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].</ref> Bishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annianus_of_Alexandria Annianos of Alexandria]] however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, the 25th of March, and shifted the Panodoros era by about six months, to begin on 25 March 5492 BC. This created the ''Alexandrian Era'', whose first day was the first day of the proleptic<ref>A calendar obtained by extension earlier in time than its invention or implementation is called the "proleptic" version of the calendar</ref> Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August, 5493 BC, with the ecclesiatical year beginning on 25 March, 5493 BC. <br />
<br />
:This system presents in a masterly sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the world's history: the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation, and the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ. All these events happened, according to the Alexandrian chronology, on the 25th of March; furthermore, the first two events were separated by the period of exactly 5500 years; the first and the third one occurred on Sunday — the sacred day of the beginning of the Creation and its renovation through Christ.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
Pope [[Dionysius of Alexandria]] had earlier emphatically quoted mystical justifications for the choice of March 25th as the start of the year:<br />
:[[March 25]] was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itself. It was the first day of the year in the medieval [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_calendar Julian calendar] and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian calendar was originally designed). Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned [[March 25]] into the Feast of the [[Annunciation]] which had to be followed, nine months later, by the celebration of the [[Nativity|birth of Christ]], Christmas, on [[December 25]].<br />
<br />
The ''Alexandrian Era'' of [[March 25]] 5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_the_Confessor Maximus the Confessor] and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor], as well as chroniclers such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Syncellus]. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles. However this masterpiece of Christian symbolism had two serious weak points: historical inaccuracy surrounding the date of [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] as determined by its [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus,<ref>In the commonly used 19‐year [[Holy Easter|Easter]] moon cycle, there was no year when the Passover (the first spring full moon, Nisan 14) would coincide with Friday and the traditional date of the Passion, [[March 25]]; according to Alexandrian system the date would have to have been Anno Mundi 5533 = 42(!)AD.</ref> and its contradiction to the chronology of the Gospel of [[Apostle John|St John]] regarding the date of the [[Crucifixion]] on Friday after the Passover.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
===Chronicon Paschale===<br />
A new variant of the ''World Era'' was suggested in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'', a valuable Byzantine universal chronicle of the world, composed about the year 630 AD by some representative of the Antiochian scholarly tradition.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref> It had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year A.D. 627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible and begins with [[March 21|21 March]], 5507.<br />
<br />
For its influence on Greek Christian chronology, and also because of its wide scope, the ''"Chronicon Paschale"'' takes its place beside [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius], and the chronicle of the monk [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus Georgius Syncellus]<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref> which was so important in the Middle Ages; but in respect of form it is inferior to these works.<ref>Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.</ref><br />
<br />
By the late tenth century the ''Byzantine Creation Era'', which had become fixed at [[September 1]] 5509 BC since at least the seventh century (differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian date, and 2 years from the ''Chronicon Paschale''), had become the widely accepted calendar of choice ''par excellence'' for Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.<br />
<br />
==Accounts in Church Fathers==<br />
'''St. John Chrysostom'''<br />
<br />
St. [[John Chrysostom]] says clearly in his Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''", that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years."<ref>St. John Chrysostom. Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''" 1:2.</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Isaac the Syrian'''<br />
<br />
St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria Isaac the Syrian] writes in a Homily that before [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"for five thousand years five hundred and some years God left Adam (i.e. man) to labor on the earth."<ref>St. Isaac the Syrian. Homily 19, Russian edition, pp. 85 [Homily 29, English edition, p.143].</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Augustine'''<br />
<br />
[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Augustine_of_Hippo Blessed Augustine] writes in the ''City of God'' (written AD 413-426):<br />
: "Let us omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race...They are deceived by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousands of years, though reckoning by the sacred writings we find that not 6,000 years have passed. (''City of God'' 12:10)<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.236.</ref>.<br />
Augustine goes on to say that the ancient Greek chronology "does not exceed the true account of the duration of the world as it is given in our documents [i.e. the Scriptures], which are truly sacred."<br />
<br />
'''St. Hippolytus'''<br />
<br />
St. [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (ca.170-235) maintained on Scriptural grounds that the Lord's birth took place in 5500 AM, and held that the birth of Christ took place on a passover day, deducing that its month-date was [[March 25|25 March]]<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.6.</ref> (see ''[[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|Alexandrian Era]]''). He gave the following intervals:<br />
<br />
:"...from Adam to the flood 2242 years, thence to Abraham 1141 years, thence to the Exodus 430 years, thence to the passover of Joshua 41 years, thence to the passover of Hezekiah 864 years, thence to the passover of Josiah 114 years, thence to the passover of Ezra 107 years, and thence to the birth of Christ 563 years."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.5.</ref>.<br />
<br />
In his ''Commentary on Daniel'', one of his earlier writings, he proceeds to set out additional reasons for accepting the date of 5500 AM:<br />
:"First he quotes Exod. xxv. 10f. and pointing out that the length, breadth and height of the Ark of the Covenant amount in all to 5 1/2 cubits, says that these symbolize the 5,500 years from Adam at the end of which the Saviour was born. He then quotes from Jn. xix. 14 ' ''it was about the sixth hour'' ' and, understanding by that 5 1/2 hours, takes each hour to correspond to a thousand years of the world's life..."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
Around AD 202 Hippolytus held that the Lord was born in the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus<ref>It is likely that his reckoning is from B.C. 43, the year in which Octavian was declared consul by senate and people and recognized as the adopted son and heir of Caesar. Epiphanius, (''Haeres'') also puts the Lord's birth in the 42nd year of Augustus when Octavius Augustus xiii and Silanus were consuls; and they were consuls in 2 B.C.</ref> and that he was born in 5500AM. In his ''Commentary on Daniel'' he did not need to establish the precise year of the Lord's birth; he is not concerned about the day of the week, the month-date, or even the year; it was sufficient for his purpose to show that Christ was born in the days of Augustus in 5500 AM.<br />
<br />
'''Quinisext Council'''<br />
<br />
It is referred to indirectly in '''Canon III''' of the '''[[Quinisext Council]]''', which the Orthodox Churches consider as ecumenical, its canons being added to the decrees of the [[Second Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] and [[Third Council of Constantinople|Sixth]] Councils, as follows:<br />
:"... as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, ''in the last fourth [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]'', '''in the year six thousand one hundred and ninety [6190]''', ..."<ref>''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated.<br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983).</ref><br />
<br />
==Accounts in Byzantine Authors==<br />
From Justinian's decree in AD 537 that all dates must include the Indiction, the unification of the theological date of creation (as yet unfinalized) with the administrative system of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction] cycles became commonly referred to amongst [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians Byzantine authors], to whom the indiction was the standard measurement of time.<br />
<br />
'''In Official Documents'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, in the year AD 691 we find the ''Creation Era'' in the Acts of the [[Quinisext Council]] (so‐called Synodos Quinisexta).<br />
<br />
We find the era also in the dating of the so called ''Letter of three Patriarchs'' to the emperor Theophilos (April, indiction 14, 6344 = 836 AD).<br />
<br />
By the tenth century the ''Byzantine Era'' is found in the ''Novellas'' of A.D. 947, 962, 964, and most surely of the year A.D. 988, all dated in this way, as well as the Act of patriarch Nicholaos II Chrysobergos in A.D. 987.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
'''John Skylitzes'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Skylitzes John Skylitzes'] (ca.1081-1118) major work is the ''Synopsis of Histories'', which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael IV in 1057; it continues the chronicle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor]. Quoting from him as an example of the common Byzantine dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that:<br />
<br />
:"In the '''year 6508''' [1000], '''in the thirteenth indiction''', the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountains,..."<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref><br />
<br />
'''Niketas Choniates'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates Niketas Choniates]] (ca. 1155–1215), sometimes called Acominatus, was a Byzantine Greek historian. His chief work is his ''History'', in twenty-one books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. Again, an example of the dating method can be seen as he refers to the fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade as follows:<br />
<br />
:"The [[Constantinople|queen of cities]] fell to the Latins on the twelfth day of the month of April of the '''seventh indiction in the year 6712''' ([[1204]])."<ref>Niketas Choniates. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984. p.338</ref><br />
<br />
'''Doukas'''<br />
<br />
The historian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas], writing circa AD 1460, makes a detailed account for the ''Creation Era''. Although unrefined in style, the history of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas] is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the closing years of the Byzantine empire. <br />
<br />
:"From Adam, the first man created by God, to Noah, at whose time the flood took place, there were ten generations. The first, which was from God, was that of Adam. The second, after 230 years, was that of Seth begotten of Adam. The third, 205 years after Seth, was that of Enos begotten of Seth. The fourth, 190 years after Enos, was that of Kainan begotten of Enos. The fifth, 170 years after Kainan, was that of Mahaleel begotten of Kainan. The sixth, 165 years after Mahaleel, was that of Jared begotten of Mahaleel. The seventh, 162 years after Jared, was that of Enoch begotten of Jared. The eighth, 165 years after Enoch, was that of Methuselah begotten of Enoch. The ninth, 167 years after Methuselah, was that of Lamech begotten of Methuselah. The tenth, 188 years after Lamech, was that of Noah. Noah was 600 years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. Thus 2242 years may be counted from Adam to the flood.<br />
<br />
:There are also ten generations from the flood to Abraham numbering 1121 years. Abraham was seventy-five years old when he moved to the land of Canaan from Mesopotamia, and having resided there twenty-five years he begat Isaac. Isaac begat two sons, Esau and Jacob. When Jacob was 130 years old he went to Egypt with his twelve sons and grandchildren, seventy-five in number. And Abraham with his offspring dwelt in the land of Canaan 433 years, and having multiplied they numbered twelve tribes; a multitude of 600,000 were reckoned from the twelve sons of Jacob whose names are as follows: Ruben, Symeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Dan, Joseph, and Benjamin.<br />
<br />
:The descendants of Levi were Moses and Aaron; the latter was the first of the priesthood while Moses was appointed to govern. In the eightieth year of his life he walked through the Red Sea and led his people out of Egypt. This Moses flourished in the time of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inachus Inachos] [son of Oceanus and King of Argos] who was the first [Greek] king to reign. Thus the Jews are more ancient than the Greeks.<br />
<br />
:Remaining in the wilderness forty years they were governed for twenty-five years by Joshua, son of Nun, and by the Judges for 454 years to the reign of Saul, the first king installed by them. During the first year of his reign the great David was born. Thus from Abraham to David fourteen generations are numbered for a total of 1024 years. From David to the deportation to Babylon [586 BC] there are fourteen generations totalling 609 years. From the Babylonian Captivity to [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] there are fourteen generations totalling 504 years.<br />
<br />
:By the sequence of Numbers we calculate the number of 5,500 years from the time of the first Adam to Christ."<ref>Doukas (ca.1460). ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. pp.57-58.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==The Byzantine Mindset==<br />
===Literal Creation Days===<br />
Even the most mystical Fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian] accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that ''the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC''. As Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose] points out:<br />
:"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology of the Old Testament, '''from Adam onwards''', is to be accepted "literally." They did not have the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological ''precision'', but even the most mystical Fathers ([http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian]], St. [[Gregory Palamas]], etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between the creation and the Birth of Christ."<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.539-540.</ref><br />
<br />
The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] also consistently affirm that each species of the animate creation came into existence instantaneously, at the command of God, with its seed within itself.<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref> [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]] for example takes this literal view in the ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron],'' a work consisitng of nine homilies delivered by St. Basil on the cosmogony of the opening chapters of Genesis, providing one of the most detailed expositions of the six days of creation to come down to us from the early church. Basil writes in Homily I that:<br />
:"Thus then, if it is said, “''In the beginning God created,''” it is to teach us that at the will of God the world arose in less than an instant,..."<ref>St. [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.ii.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''VOLUME VIII - BASIL: LETTERS AND SELECT WORKS'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.</ref><br />
<br />
Typical of the Christian conviction on this point, St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers] also affirms that the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation] was performed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo ex nihilo]: <br />
:"For all things, as the Prophet says, were made out of nothing; it was no transformation of existing things, but the creation of the non-being into a perfect form".<ref>St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV, 16.</ref><br />
The prophet cited by St.Hilary was the mother of the Maccabean martyrs, who said to one of her tortured sons, ''"I beseech you, my child, to look at heaven and earth and see everything in them, and know that God made them out of nothing; so also He made the race of man in this way"''<ref>''The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]'' ([Septuagint]). St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.653.</ref> (2 Maccabees 7:28).<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] 7:28), p.34.</ref> This text from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] was the standard biblical proof text for the Christian Church in respect to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo creation from nothingness]. We find the thesis in late Judaism, from which it passed into the Christian faith as an essential teaching.<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. pp.34-35.</ref><br />
<br />
In addition, the traditional Jewish understanding of the creation "days" of Genesis is that they are literal as well, as virtually all the Rabbis have understood in commentaries from Talmudic, Midrashic and Rabbinic sources.<ref>Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. Vol.1 (Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988. ISBN 9780932232076</ref>.<br />
<br />
===Hours of the Liturgical Day===<br />
In the Byzantine period the day was divided into two 12-hour cycles fixed by the rising and setting of the sun.<br />
:"Following Roman custom, the Byzantines began their calendrical day (''nychthemeron'') at midnight with the first hour of day (''hemera'') coming at dawn. The third hour marked midmorning, the sixth hour noon, and the ninth hour midafternoon. Evening (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Vespers hespera]]'') began at the 11th hour, and with sunset came the first hour of night (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Compline apodeipnon]]''). The interval between sunset and sunrise (''[[nyx]]'') was similarly divided into 12 hours as well as the traditional "watches" (''vigiliae'') of Roman times."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3</ref><br />
<br />
===Days of the Liturgical Week===<br />
Dr. Marcus Rautman points out that the seven-day week was known throughout the ancient world. The Roman Calendar had assigned one of the planetary deities to each day of the week. The Byzantines naturally avoided using these Latin names with their pagan echoes. They began their week with the "[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Lord%27s_Day Lord's Day]" (Kyriake), followed by an orderly succession of numbered days (Deutera, Trite, Tetarte, and Pempte), a day of "preparation" (Paraskeve), and finally Sabatton.<br />
:"Each day was devoted to remembering one or more martyrs or saints, whose observed feast days gradually eclipsed traditional festivals. Kyriake was seen as both the first and eighth day of the week, in the same way that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] was the alpha and omega of the cosmos, existing both before and after time. The second day of the week recognized angels, "the secondary luminaries as the first reflections of the primal outpouring of light," just as the sun and the moon had been observed during the Roman week. [[Saint John the Baptist|John the Baptist]], the forerunner (Prodromos) of Christ, was honored on the third day. Both the second and third days were viewed as occasions for penitence. The fourth and sixth days were dedicated to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Cross Cross] with holy songs sung in remembrance of the Crucifixion. The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] was honored on the fifth day of the week, while the seventh day was set aside for the martyrs of the church."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.5</ref><br />
<br />
==Comparative List of Dates of Creation==<br />
===Early Church Writers===<br />
* 5537 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245), Church historian.<br />
* 5529 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus] (AD 115-181), Bishop of Antioch.<br />
* '''5509 BC''' - '''Byzantine Creation Era''' or''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople."'' ''' (finalized in 7th c. AD).<br />
* 5507 BC - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'' (ca. AD 630), Byzantine universal chronicle of the world.<br />
* 5500 BC - [[Hippolytus of Rome]]. (ca. AD 234), Presbyter, writer, martyr.<br />
* '''5493 BC - Alexandrian Era''' (AD 412).<br />
* 5199 BC - [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea]], Bishop of Caesarea and Church historian (AD 324).<br />
===Other Estimates===<br />
* 5199 BC - Mentioned in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Roman Martyrology]''<ref>Roman Martyrology: Some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic Traditionalist Catholics] use the year 5199 BC, which is taken from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Catholic martyrologies], and referred to as the true date of Creation in the "''Mystical City of God''," a 17th-century mystical work written by Maria de Agreda concerning creation and the life of the Virgin Mary. This year was also used earlier by the church historian [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in 324. (V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. 1958. pp.24-25).</ref>, published by the authority of Pope Gregory XIII in 1584, later confirmed in 1630 under Pope Urban VIII.<br />
* 4963 BC - According to the Benedictine Chronology<ref>Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine]. ''Art of Verifying Dates''. 4to, [[1750]]. Printed again in folio in [[1770]].<br />
:Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine] was a Benedictine monk, born at Gourieux, in the diocese of Liege, in 1688. He died in 1746. In France the Benedictine Maurist Order presided over the publication of a remarkable series of source collections for both ecclesiastical and secular history, and sponsored the major studies of documentation and chronology of the period. (John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887. p.235.)<br><br />
:Chronology was made a new science by this order of scholars. The ''"[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Art_de_v%C3%A9rifier_les_dates Art de vérifer les dates]"'', by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Dantine] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cl%C3%A9mencet Charles Clémencet], is regarded as the chief monument of French learning in the eighteenth century. (Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p.171.)</ref>, the Creation of Adam is given this date (AD [[1750]]).<br />
* 4004 BC<ref>Anglican and Protestant: In the English-speaking world, one of the most well known estimates in modern times is that of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] (1581–1656), who proposed a date of Sunday, [[October 23]], 4004 BC, in the Julian calendar. He placed the beginning of this first day of creation, and hence the exact time of creation, at the previous nightfall. (See the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher chronology]). When Queen Victoria came to the English throne in AD 1837, 4004 B.C. was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of the world. (Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology]).</ref> - Anglican Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher]] (AD 1650).<br />
* 3952 BC - Venerable [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bede Bede] (ca. AD 725), English Benedictine monk.<br />
* 3761 BC<ref>In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Jewish calendar was reformed. F. Rühl has shown that the adoption of this era must have taken place between the year 222, when Julius Africanus reports that the Jews still retained the eight-year lunar cycle (which is referred to in the pseudepigraphal ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Book_of_Enoch Book of Enoch]'' (74:13-16); see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch Calendar]), and 276, when Anatolius makes use of the nineteen year [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] to determine Easter after the manner of the Jews. It may be further conjectured that it was introduced about the year 240-241, the first year of the fifth thousand, according to this calculation, and that the tradition which associated its determination with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_of_Nehardea Mar Samuel] (d. about 250) is justified. (F. Rühl. ''Der Ursprung der Jüdischen Weltära, in Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft''. 1898. pp. 185,202.)</ref><ref>According to the popular tradition, the epoch that Hebrew calendar currently uses, the '''Hillel World Era''', beginning [[October 7]], 3761 BC, is traditionally regarded as having been calculated by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_II Hillel II] in the 4th century AD (ca. 358 AD), but did not become universal practice until the end of the Middle Ages. Scholars of this subject however believe that the evolution of the Hebrew calendar into its present form was actually a gradual process spanning several centuries from the first to about the eighth or ninth century AD.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] [Judaism] - (ca. AD 222-276); or, (ca. AD 358 - ''Hillel World Era'').<br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
* According to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]: <br />
:Regarding questions about the scientific accuracy of the Genesis account of creation, and about various viewpoints concerning evolution, '''the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] has not dogmatized any particular view'''. What is dogmatically proclaimed is that the One Triune God created everything that exists, and that man was created in a unique way and is alone made ''in the image and likeness of God'' (Gn 1:26,27).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref><br />
:The opening words of the [[Nicene Creed]], the central doctrinal statement of Christianity, affirms that the One True God is the source of everything that exists, both physical and spiritual, both animate and inanimate: ''"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible."'' In addition, our regeneration in Christ and the resurrection of the dead are both often called the '''"New Creation"''' (2 Cor 5:17; Rev 21:1).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.1778.</ref><br />
<br />
* According to Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley Harakas], the Bible's description of creation is not a "scientific account". It is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of the origins of mankind, though important, is really quite secondary in significance to the Church's message. The central image of Adam as God's image and likeness, who also represents fallen and sinful humanity, and the new Adam, [[Jesus Christ]], who is the "beginning", the first-born of the dead (Colossians 1:18) and the "first-fruits" of those who were dead, and are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20-23), is what is really important.<ref>Fr. Stanley S. Harakas. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988. pp.88,91.</ref> <br />
<br />
* Professor Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]), a nineteenth century historian, observed that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Biblical Chronologies] are uncertain due to discrepancies in the figures in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Genesis] and other methodological factors, accounting for hundreds of different chronologies being assigned by historians. In the case of the Fathers of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, who assigned 5509 B.C. as the date of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis creation of man], he writes that it was in response to the emperor's wishes to fix an era or convenient starting point for historical computation. Therefore it was a decision of mere historical convenience, not respecting either faith or morals.<ref>Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.</ref><br />
<br />
* It may also be noted historically that while Byzantine officials and chroniclers were disconcerted by the ambiguities among the different dating and recording systems in the earlier centuries, these mattered little to most people who marked time by the orderly progression of agricultual seasons and church festivals, and by the regularity of holidays, weather cycles, and years that revealed the Divine order (''Taxis'') underlying the world.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.8</ref><br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, Christians began at an early period to adopt the Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world.<ref>Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_the_Creation_of_the_World Chronology - Era of the Creation of the World].</ref><br />
<br />
Currently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the Biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of Genesis. The older dates of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] in the ''Byzantine Creation Era'' and in its precursor, the ''Alexandrian Era'', are based on the Greek [[Septuagint]]. The later dates of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] and the Hebrew Calendar are based on the Hebrew Masoretic text. <br />
<br />
The Fathers were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Old Testament chronology,<ref>Note that according to Dr. Wacholder, [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Josephus Josephus'] chronology for the antediluvian period (pre-flood) conforms with the LXX ([[Septuagint]]), but for the Noachites (post-flood) he used the Hebrew text. He chose this method to resolve the problem of the two chronological systems.</ref> and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.602-603.</ref><br />
<br />
To this day, traditional Orthodox Christians will use the Byzantine calculation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etos_Kosmou Etos Kosmou] in conjunction with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Anno Domini] (AD) year. Both dates appear on Orthodox cornerstones, ecclesiastical calendars and formal documents. The ecclesiastical new year is still observed on [[September 1]] (or on the Gregorian Calendar's [[September 14]] for those churches which follow the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]). September [[2008]] marked the beginning of the year 7517 of this era.<br />
<br />
==Key Dates according to the Byzantine Era==<br />
* 1 AM (5509 BC) - [ Creation of the world].<br />
* 4755 AM (753 BC) - Rome was founded.<br />
* 4841 AM (667 BC) - City of [[Byzantium]] was founded.<br />
* ca. 5504 AM (4 BC) - Jesus of Nazareth was born.<br />
* ca. 5538 AM (AD 30) - Jesus Christ's crucifixion and resurrection.<br />
* 5838 AM (AD [[330]]) - [[Constantinople]] becomes the new capital of the Roman Empire.<br />
* 5888 AM (AD [[380]]) - Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire by decree of [[Theodosius I]].<br />
* 5903 AM (AD [[395]]) - Death of [[Theodosius I]] divides the Roman Empire into East and West.<br />
* 6045 AM (AD [[537]]) - [[Justinian I]] decrees that the indiction must be included when designating a Byzantine year. <br />
* 6118 AM (AD [[610]]) - [[Eastern Roman Empire]] changed its official language from Latin to [[Greek language|Greek]].<br />
* 6200 AM (AD 692) - Quinisext Council; first known official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' for dating.<br />
* 6496 AM (AD 988) - Official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' by Basil II; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27 Conversion of the Rus], ''Byzantine Era'' adopted in Russia.<br />
* 6562 AM (AD [[1054]]) - [[Great Schism]] occurs between the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
* 6712 AM (AD [[1204]]) - Sack of Constantinople by soldiers of the [[Fourth Crusade]]; Latin Empire of Constantinople was established.<br />
* 6769 AM (AD [[1261]]) - Byzantine Empire is re-established; [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Double-headed_eagle Double-headed eagle] is adopted as the official flag of the Byzantine Empire by Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.<ref>Josh Fruhlinger. [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_byz.html Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Imperial Flag]. '''Flags of the World''', 27 January, 1999.</ref>.<br />
* 6961 AM (AD [[1453]]) - [[Fall of Constantinople]]. The final collapse of the Byzantine Empire. The civilization of Rome (in its most inclusive sense including both Ancient Rome and New Rome ([[Constantinople]])) lasted a total of 2,206 years.<br />
* 7000 AM (AD 1492) - Millennialist movements in Moscow due to the end of the church calendar.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
===Wikipedia===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Anno Mundi].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Book of Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_era Calendar era].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Chronology of the Bible].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_Creation Dating Creation].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo Ex nihilo].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameron Hexameron].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar Julian calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar Lunisolar calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint Septuagint].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism Young Earth creationism].<br />
'''Principal Considerations for the Byzantine Calendar'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation according to Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle_(calendar) Solar cycle (calendar)] (28-year solar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] (19 year lunar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiction Indiction] (15 year indiction cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computus Easter Computus].<br />
'''Other Judeo-Christian Eras'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_calendar Coptic Calendar]. (Note that the '''"''Alexandrian Era''"''' (March 25, 5493 BC), is distinct from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", which is derived from the ancient [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian Calendar] and based on the ''' ''Era of the Martyrs'' '''(August 29, 284)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_calendar Ethiopian Calendar]. (Derived from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", and based on the ''' ''Incarnation Era'' ''' (August 29, AD 8)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar#Epoch_year Hebrew calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher_chronology].<br />
===Other External Links===<br />
'''In Greek'''<br />
* [http://el.orthodoxwiki.org/%CE%88%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85 Έτος Κόσμου].<br />
'''OrthodoxWiki'''<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Septuagint Septuagint]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Genesis Genesis]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Evolution Evolution]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gaussian_Formulae Gaussian Formulae]<br />
'''Hebrew Calendar'''<br />
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=438&letter=E#1154 The Era of the Creation] at Jewish Encyclopedia. <br />
* [http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Fact-Archive.com<br />
* [http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Absolute Astronomy.<br />
* [http://www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar] by Karl Hagen (medievalist).<br />
'''Other'''<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Labyrinth/2398/bginfo/trade/time.html Byzantine ways of reckoning time]<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_Constantinople Era of Constantinople] at Classic Encyclopedia (''Based on the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911'').<br />
* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. Charles Ellis, University of Bristol. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.smso.net/Calendar_era#Christian_era Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era] at SMSO Encyclopedia (''Saudi Medical Site Online'').<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In, '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/chronology.html Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs].<br />
* Dr. Stephen C. Meyers. [http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodusdate.htm Biblical Archaeology: The Date of the Exodus According to Ancient Writers]. Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies (IBSS). Updated April 30, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Young_earth_creationism Young earth creationism] at CreationWiki.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Theory_of_evolution Theory of evolution] at CreationWiki.<br />
<br />
==Bibliography and Further Reading==<br />
===Primary Sources===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas]. ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. (Vol.1 - Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates]. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.<br />
* St. [[Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''Volume VIII - Basil: Letters and Select Works'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.<br />
* St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV.<br />
* ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated. <br> <br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes]. ''The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813''. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).<br />
<br />
===Secondary Sources===<br />
'''21st century'''<br />
* Anthony Bryer. ''“Chronology and Dating”''. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pnkxofhi4mQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies].''' Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31-37.<br />
* Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000.<br />
* Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.<br />
* Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.<br />
* Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.<br />
* Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. '''21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies''', London 2006.<br />
* Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). ''[http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]''. '''The Literary Encyclopedia'''. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire].''' Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3–8.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PVCUZ7BTD2gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enoch+74%22+AND+%22cycle%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity]''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (''Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission'').<br />
* ''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. <br />
<br />
'''20th century'''<br />
* Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology] at Classic Encyclopedia (''based on the 11th ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica, pub.1911'').<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451–481.<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography''. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.<br />
* Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC&printsec=frontcover Chronology of the Old Testament]''. Master Books, AZ, 1993. Repr. 2005. ''(supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).''<br />
* E.G. Richards. ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History''. Oxford University Press, 1998. <br />
* Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley S. Harakas]. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.<br />
* George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp.2–18.<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <br />
* Jack Finegan. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible''. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. <br />
* K.A. Worp. ''[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/9250/1/5_039_134.pdf Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents]''. 1985. University of Amsterdam.<br />
* Prof. Dr. William Adler. ''Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus''. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. <br />
* Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''"Era."'' '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]'''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].<br />
* Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. ''The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt''. Zutphen, 1978. <br />
* V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.<br />
* Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.<br />
* Yiannis E. Meimaris. ''Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia''. Athens, 1992.<br />
<br />
'''19th Century and Earlier'''<br />
* John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887.<br />
* Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Pozna%C5%84ski Samuel Poznański]. ''Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar.'' in '''The Jewish Quarterly Review''', Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), pp. 152–161.<br />
* Sir [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Browne Thomas Browne]. ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo61.html Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 - Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical]''. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. pp. 321-330.<br />
* ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.<br />
<br />
<br />
''This article incorporates text from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Byzantine_Creation_Era Byzantine Creation Era] at [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki] under the terms of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Free Documentation License].'' <br />
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[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]<br />
[[Category:Timelines]]<br />
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Byzantine_Creation_Era&diff=39441Byzantine Creation Era2009-07-23T16:03:44Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
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<div>The '''Byzantine Creation Era''', also ''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople,"'' ''' or ''' ''"Era of the World"'' ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''' ''Έτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατά 'Ρωμαίους'' ''',<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''How Old is The World? The Byzantine Era and its Rivals''. Institute for World History, Moscow, Russia. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, Fiona K. Haarer, Judith Gilliland. '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=YWec0i621ekC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21-26 August, 2006: Vol. 3, Abstracts of Communications].''' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. pp. 23-24.</ref> also ''' ''Έτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου'' ''' or ''' ''Έτος Κόσμου'' ''') was the Calendar officially used by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] from ca. AD 691 to 1728 in the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], by the [[Byzantine Empire]]<ref>i.e. '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. The term Byzantine was invented by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1557 but was popularized by French scholars during the 18th century to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. The citizens of the empire considered themselves ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), their emperor was the "Roman Emperor", and their empire the ''Basileia ton Romaion'' ("Empire of the Romans"). The Latin West designated the empire as "Romania", and the Muslims as "Rum".</ref> from AD 988 to [[1453]], and in [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Russia Holy Russia] from ca. AD 988 to 1700. Its year one, the date of creation, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC.<br />
<br />
Derived from the [[Septuagint]] version of the Bible, it placed the date of creation at 5,509 years before the Incarnation, and was characterized by a certain tendency which had already been a tradition amongst Hebrews and Jews to number the years ''from the foundation of the world''<ref>The phrase ''"Apo Kataboles Kosmou"'' (''"from the foundation of the world"'') occurs in Matthew 25:34, Luke 11:50, Hebrews 4:3, 9:26, and Revelation 13:8, 17:8.</ref> (Greek - ''‘Etos Kosmou/Apo Kataboles Kosmou’'', or Latin - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Annus Mundi]/‘Ab Origine Mundi’'' ('''AM''')).<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
We do not know who invented this era and when, however it appears for the first time in the treatise of a certain “monk and priest”, Georgios (AD 638-39), who mentions all the main variants of the ''"World Era"'' (''Ére Mondiale'') in his work.<ref>Fr. Diekamp, ''“Der Mönch und Presbyter Georgios, ein unbekannter Schriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts,”'' BZ 9 (1900) 14–51.</ref><ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.3.</ref>. Georgios makes it clear that the main advantage of the Byzantine era is the common starting point of the astronomical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar lunar and solar cycles], and of the cycle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indictions], the usual dating system in Byzantium since the sixth century. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus. Complex calculations of the 19-year lunar and 28-year solar cycles within this world era allowed scholars to discover the cosmic significance of certain historical dates, such as the birth of Christ or the Crucifixion.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Daily+Life+in+the+Byzantine+Empire ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.7</ref> <br />
<br />
This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the seventh century A.D., although its precursors were developed circa AD 412 (see [[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|''Alexandrian Era'']]). By the second half of the 7th century the ''Creation Era'' was known in the far West of Europe, in Britain.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4. (PL XC, 598, 877 (Pseudo‐Beda)).</ref> By the late tenth century around AD 988, when the era appears in use on offical government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world.<br />
<br />
The era was ultimately calculated as starting on [[September 1|September 1st]], and Jesus Christ was thought to have been born in the year 5509 ''Annus Mundi'' (AM) - the year since the creation of the world.<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref>. Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christ's birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'' since the date of Christ's birth was debated in Constantinople as late as the fourteenth century. Otherwise the ''Creation Era'' was identical to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]] except that: <br />
:*the names of the months were transcribed from Latin into Greek, <br />
:*the first day of the year was [[September 1]],<ref>About the year 462 the Byzantine [http://orthodoxwiki.org/IndictionIndiction] was moved from [[September 23]] to [[September 1]], where it remained throughout the rest of the Byzantine Empire, representing the present day beginning of the Church year. In [[537]] Justinian decreed that all dates must include the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indiction], so it was officially adopted as one way to identify a Byzantine year, becoming compulsory.</ref> so that both the Ecclesiatical and Civil calendar years ran from [[September 1|1 September]] to [[August 31|31 August]], (see [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]), which to the present day is the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church year]], and,<br />
:*the date of creation, '''its year one, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC'''.<br />
<br />
The ''Creation Era'' was gradually replaced in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] by the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'', which was utilized initially by Patriarch [[Theophanes I of Constantinople|Theophanes I Karykes]] in 1597, afterwards by Patriarch [[Cyril Lucaris]] in 1626, and then formally established by the Church in 1728.<ref>"Οικουμενικόν Πατριαρχείον", ΘHE, τόμ. 09, εκδ. Μαρτίνος Αθ., Αθήνα 1966, στ. 778.<br>(''"Ecumenical Patriarchate"''. '''Religious and Ethical Encyclopedia.''' Vol. 9., Athens, 1966. p.778.)</ref> Meanwhile as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the ''Creation Era'' (translated into Slavonic). After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the ''Creation Era'' continued to be used by Russia, which witnessed millennialist movements in Moscow in AD 1492 (7000 AM) due to the end of the church calendar. It was only in 1700 that the ''Creation Era'' in Russia was changed to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar] by Peter the Great.<ref>Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. ''The Literary Encyclopedia''. 25 September, 2008.</ref>. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today. September AD [[2000]] began the year 7509 AM.<ref>To convert our era to the Byzantine era, add 5509 years from September to December, and 5508 years from January to August.</ref><br />
<br />
===Earliest Christian Sources on the Age of the World===<br />
The earliest extant Christian writings on the age of the world according to the Biblical chronology are by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus]] (AD 115-181), the sixth bishop of Antioch from the Apostles, in his apologetic work ''To Autolycus'',<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).</ref> and by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245) in his ''Five Books of Chronology'' <ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''</ref>. Both of these early Christian writers, following the [[Septuagint]] version of the Old Testament, determined the age of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From a scholarly point of view Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] on this subject are of vital significance (''even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the [[Septuagint]], as compared to that of the Hebrew text''), in that through the Christian chronographers a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers<ref>Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275-194 B.C.) represented contemporary Alexandrian scholarship; Eupolemus, a Palestinian Jew and a friend of Judah Maccabee, writing in 158 B.C., is said to have been the first historian who synchronized Greek history in accordance with the theory of the Mosaic origin of culture. By the time of the first century B.C., a world chronicle had synchronized Jewish and Greek history and had gained international circulation: Alexander Polyhistor (flourishing in 85-35 B.C.); Varro (116-27 B.C.); Ptolemy of Mendes (50 B.C.); Apion (first century A.D.); Thrasyllus (before A.D. 36); and Thallus (first century A.D.) - all cited chronicles which had incorporated the dates of the Noachite flood and the exodus.</ref> is preserved:<br />
<br />
:An immense intellectual effort was expended during the Hellenistic period by both Jews and pagans to date creation, the flood, exodus, building of the Temple... In the course of their studies, men such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatian Tatian of Antioch]] (flourished in 180), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Clement_of_Alexandria Clement of Alexandria] (died before 215), [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (died in 235), [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]] of Jerusalem (died after 240), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in Palestine (260-340), and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers of the Hellenistic period, thereby allowing discernment of more distant scholarship.<ref>Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451-452.</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Hellenistic Jewish writer Demetrius (flourishing 221-204 B.C.) wrote ''On the Kings of Judea'' which dealt with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology; he computed the date of the flood and the birth of Abraham exactly as in the [[Septuagint]], and first established the '' '''Annus Adami''' - Era of Adam'', the antecedent of the Hebrew ''World Era'', and of the Alexandrian and Byzantine ''Creation Eras''.<br />
<br />
===Alexandrian Era===<br />
The ''' ''"Alexandrian Era"'' ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '' '''Κόσμου ετη κατ’ Αλεξανδρεις''' '' developed AD 412, was the precursor to the ''Byzantine Creation Era''. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others<ref>The ''' ''Era of Antioch'' ''' (5492 BC) and ''' ''Era of Alexandria'' ''' (5502 BC) were originally two different formations, differing by 10 years. They were both much in use by the early Christian writers attached to the Churches of Alexandria and Antioch. However after the year AD 284 the two eras coincided, settling on 5492 BC. (''"Epoch: Era of Antioch and Era of Alexandra."'' In: ''' ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' '''(Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841. p.73.)</ref>, the Alexandrian computation of the date of creation was worked out to be [[March 25|25 March]] 5493 BC.<ref>Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. p.73.</ref>. <br />
<br />
The Alexandrine monk Panodoros reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD 412. His years began with [[August 29]], corresponding to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thout First of Thoth], or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian]] new year.<ref>Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].</ref> Bishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annianus_of_Alexandria Annianos of Alexandria]] however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, the 25th of March, and shifted the Panodoros era by about six months, to begin on 25 March 5492 BC. This created the ''Alexandrian Era'', whose first day was the first day of the proleptic<ref>A calendar obtained by extension earlier in time than its invention or implementation is called the "proleptic" version of the calendar</ref> Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August, 5493 BC, with the ecclesiatical year beginning on 25 March, 5493 BC. <br />
<br />
:This system presents in a masterly sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the world's history: the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation, and the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ. All these events happened, according to the Alexandrian chronology, on the 25th of March; furthermore, the first two events were separated by the period of exactly 5500 years; the first and the third one occurred on Sunday — the sacred day of the beginning of the Creation and its renovation through Christ.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
Pope [[Dionysius of Alexandria]] had earlier emphatically quoted mystical justifications for the choice of March 25th as the start of the year:<br />
:[[March 25]] was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itself. It was the first day of the year in the medieval [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_calendar Julian calendar] and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian calendar was originally designed). Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned [[March 25]] into the Feast of the [[Annunciation]] which had to be followed, nine months later, by the celebration of the [[Nativity|birth of Christ]], Christmas, on [[December 25]].<br />
<br />
The ''Alexandrian Era'' of [[March 25]] 5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_the_Confessor Maximus the Confessor] and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor], as well as chroniclers such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Syncellus]. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles. However this masterpiece of Christian symbolism had two serious weak points: historical inaccuracy surrounding the date of [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] as determined by its [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus,<ref>In the commonly used 19‐year [[Holy Easter|Easter]] moon cycle, there was no year when the Passover (the first spring full moon, Nisan 14) would coincide with Friday and the traditional date of the Passion, [[March 25]]; according to Alexandrian system the date would have to have been Anno Mundi 5533 = 42(!)AD.</ref> and its contradiction to the chronology of the Gospel of [[Apostle John|St John]] regarding the date of the [[Crucifixion]] on Friday after the Passover.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
===Chronicon Paschale===<br />
A new variant of the ''World Era'' was suggested in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'', a valuable Byzantine universal chronicle of the world, composed about the year 630 AD by some representative of the Antiochian scholarly tradition.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref> It had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year A.D. 627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible and begins with [[March 21|21 March]], 5507.<br />
<br />
For its influence on Greek Christian chronology, and also because of its wide scope, the ''"Chronicon Paschale"'' takes its place beside [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius], and the chronicle of the monk [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus Georgius Syncellus]<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref> which was so important in the Middle Ages; but in respect of form it is inferior to these works.<ref>Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.</ref><br />
<br />
By the late tenth century the ''Byzantine Creation Era'', which had become fixed at [[September 1]] 5509 BC since at least the seventh century (differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian date, and 2 years from the ''Chronicon Paschale''), had become the widely accepted calendar of choice ''par excellence'' for Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.<br />
<br />
==Accounts in Church Fathers==<br />
'''St. John Chrysostom'''<br />
<br />
St. [[John Chrysostom]] says clearly in his Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''", that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years."<ref>St. John Chrysostom. Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''" 1:2.</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Isaac the Syrian'''<br />
<br />
St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria Isaac the Syrian] writes in a Homily that before [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"for five thousand years five hundred and some years God left Adam (i.e. man) to labor on the earth."<ref>St. Isaac the Syrian. Homily 19, Russian edition, pp. 85 [Homily 29, English edition, p.143].</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Augustine'''<br />
<br />
[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Augustine_of_Hippo Blessed Augustine] writes in the ''City of God'' (written AD 413-426):<br />
: "Let us omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race...They are deceived by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousands of years, though reckoning by the sacred writings we find that not 6,000 years have passed. (''City of God'' 12:10)<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.236.</ref>.<br />
Augustine goes on to say that the ancient Greek chronology "does not exceed the true account of the duration of the world as it is given in our documents [i.e. the Scriptures], which are truly sacred."<br />
<br />
'''St. Hippolytus'''<br />
<br />
St. [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (ca.170-235) maintained on Scriptural grounds that the Lord's birth took place in 5500 AM, and held that the birth of Christ took place on a passover day, deducing that its month-date was [[March 25|25 March]]<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.6.</ref> (see ''[[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|Alexandrian Era]]''). He gave the following intervals:<br />
<br />
:"...from Adam to the flood 2242 years, thence to Abraham 1141 years, thence to the Exodus 430 years, thence to the passover of Joshua 41 years, thence to the passover of Hezekiah 864 years, thence to the passover of Josiah 114 years, thence to the passover of Ezra 107 years, and thence to the birth of Christ 563 years."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.5.</ref>.<br />
<br />
In his ''Commentary on Daniel'', one of his earlier writings, he proceeds to set out additional reasons for accepting the date of 5500 AM:<br />
:"First he quotes Exod. xxv. 10f. and pointing out that the length, breadth and height of the Ark of the Covenant amount in all to 5 1/2 cubits, says that these symbolize the 5,500 years from Adam at the end of which the Saviour was born. He then quotes from Jn. xix. 14 ' ''it was about the sixth hour'' ' and, understanding by that 5 1/2 hours, takes each hour to correspond to a thousand years of the world's life..."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
Around AD 202 Hippolytus held that the Lord was born in the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus<ref>It is likely that his reckoning is from B.C. 43, the year in which Octavian was declared consul by senate and people and recognized as the adopted son and heir of Caesar. Epiphanius, (''Haeres'') also puts the Lord's birth in the 42nd year of Augustus when Octavius Augustus xiii and Silanus were consuls; and they were consuls in 2 B.C.</ref> and that he was born in 5500AM. In his ''Commentary on Daniel'' he did not need to establish the precise year of the Lord's birth; he is not concerned about the day of the week, the month-date, or even the year; it was sufficient for his purpose to show that Christ was born in the days of Augustus in 5500 AM.<br />
<br />
'''Quinisext Council'''<br />
<br />
It is referred to indirectly in '''Canon III''' of the '''[[Quinisext Council]]''', which the Orthodox Churches consider as ecumenical, its canons being added to the decrees of the [[Second Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] and [[Third Council of Constantinople|Sixth]] Councils, as follows:<br />
:"... as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, ''in the last fourth [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]'', '''in the year six thousand one hundred and ninety [6190]''', ..."<ref>''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated.<br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983).</ref><br />
<br />
==Accounts in Byzantine Authors==<br />
From Justinian's decree in AD 537 that all dates must include the Indiction, the unification of the theological date of creation (as yet unfinalized) with the administrative system of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction] cycles became commonly referred to amongst [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians Byzantine authors], to whom the indiction was the standard measurement of time.<br />
<br />
'''In Official Documents'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, in the year AD 691 we find the ''Creation Era'' in the Acts of the [[Quinisext Council]] (so‐called Synodos Quinisexta).<br />
<br />
We find the era also in the dating of the so called ''Letter of three Patriarchs'' to the emperor Theophilos (April, indiction 14, 6344 = 836 AD).<br />
<br />
By the tenth century the ''Byzantine Era'' is found in the ''Novellas'' of A.D. 947, 962, 964, and most surely of the year A.D. 988, all dated in this way, as well as the Act of patriarch Nicholaos II Chrysobergos in A.D. 987.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
'''John Skylitzes'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Skylitzes John Skylitzes'] (ca.1081-1118) major work is the ''Synopsis of Histories'', which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael IV in 1057; it continues the chronicle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor]. Quoting from him as an example of the common Byzantine dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that:<br />
<br />
:"In the '''year 6508''' [1000], '''in the thirteenth indiction''', the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountains,..."<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref><br />
<br />
'''Niketas Choniates'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates Niketas Choniates]] (ca. 1155–1215), sometimes called Acominatus, was a Byzantine Greek historian. His chief work is his ''History'', in twenty-one books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. Again, an example of the dating method can be seen as he refers to the fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade as follows:<br />
<br />
:"The [[Constantinople|queen of cities]] fell to the Latins on the twelfth day of the month of April of the '''seventh indiction in the year 6712''' ([[1204]])."<ref>Niketas Choniates. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984. p.338</ref><br />
<br />
'''Doukas'''<br />
<br />
The historian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas], writing circa AD 1460, makes a detailed account for the ''Creation Era''. Although unrefined in style, the history of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas] is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the closing years of the Byzantine empire. <br />
<br />
:"From Adam, the first man created by God, to Noah, at whose time the flood took place, there were ten generations. The first, which was from God, was that of Adam. The second, after 230 years, was that of Seth begotten of Adam. The third, 205 years after Seth, was that of Enos begotten of Seth. The fourth, 190 years after Enos, was that of Kainan begotten of Enos. The fifth, 170 years after Kainan, was that of Mahaleel begotten of Kainan. The sixth, 165 years after Mahaleel, was that of Jared begotten of Mahaleel. The seventh, 162 years after Jared, was that of Enoch begotten of Jared. The eighth, 165 years after Enoch, was that of Methuselah begotten of Enoch. The ninth, 167 years after Methuselah, was that of Lamech begotten of Methuselah. The tenth, 188 years after Lamech, was that of Noah. Noah was 600 years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. Thus 2242 years may be counted from Adam to the flood.<br />
<br />
:There are also ten generations from the flood to Abraham numbering 1121 years. Abraham was seventy-five years old when he moved to the land of Canaan from Mesopotamia, and having resided there twenty-five years he begat Isaac. Isaac begat two sons, Esau and Jacob. When Jacob was 130 years old he went to Egypt with his twelve sons and grandchildren, seventy-five in number. And Abraham with his offspring dwelt in the land of Canaan 433 years, and having multiplied they numbered twelve tribes; a multitude of 600,000 were reckoned from the twelve sons of Jacob whose names are as follows: Ruben, Symeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Dan, Joseph, and Benjamin.<br />
<br />
:The descendants of Levi were Moses and Aaron; the latter was the first of the priesthood while Moses was appointed to govern. In the eightieth year of his life he walked through the Red Sea and led his people out of Egypt. This Moses flourished in the time of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inachus Inachos] [son of Oceanus and King of Argos] who was the first [Greek] king to reign. Thus the Jews are more ancient than the Greeks.<br />
<br />
:Remaining in the wilderness forty years they were governed for twenty-five years by Joshua, son of Nun, and by the Judges for 454 years to the reign of Saul, the first king installed by them. During the first year of his reign the great David was born. Thus from Abraham to David fourteen generations are numbered for a total of 1024 years. From David to the deportation to Babylon [586 BC] there are fourteen generations totalling 609 years. From the Babylonian Captivity to [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] there are fourteen generations totalling 504 years.<br />
<br />
:By the sequence of Numbers we calculate the number of 5,500 years from the time of the first Adam to Christ."<ref>Doukas (ca.1460). ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. pp.57-58.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==The Byzantine Mindset==<br />
===Literal Creation Days===<br />
Even the most mystical Fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian] accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that ''the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC''. As Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose] points out:<br />
:"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology of the Old Testament, '''from Adam onwards''', is to be accepted "literally." They did not have the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological ''precision'', but even the most mystical Fathers ([http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian]], St. [[Gregory Palamas]], etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between the creation and the Birth of Christ."<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.539-540.</ref><br />
<br />
The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] also consistently affirm that each species of the animate creation came into existence instantaneously, at the command of God, with its seed within itself.<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref> [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]] for example takes this literal view in the ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron],'' a work consisitng of nine homilies delivered by St. Basil on the cosmogony of the opening chapters of Genesis, providing one of the most detailed expositions of the six days of creation to come down to us from the early church. Basil writes in Homily I that:<br />
:"Thus then, if it is said, “''In the beginning God created,''” it is to teach us that at the will of God the world arose in less than an instant,..."<ref>St. [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.ii.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''VOLUME VIII - BASIL: LETTERS AND SELECT WORKS'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.</ref><br />
<br />
Typical of the Christian conviction on this point, St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers] also affirms that the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation] was performed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo ex nihilo]: <br />
:"For all things, as the Prophet says, were made out of nothing; it was no transformation of existing things, but the creation of the non-being into a perfect form".<ref>St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV, 16.</ref><br />
The prophet cited by St.Hilary was the mother of the Maccabean martyrs, who said to one of her tortured sons, ''"I beseech you, my child, to look at heaven and earth and see everything in them, and know that God made them out of nothing; so also He made the race of man in this way"''<ref>''The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]'' ([Septuagint]). St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.653.</ref> (2 Maccabees 7:28).<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] 7:28), p.34.</ref> This text from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] was the standard biblical proof text for the Christian Church in respect to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo creation from nothingness]. We find the thesis in late Judaism, from which it passed into the Christian faith as an essential teaching.<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. pp.34-35.</ref><br />
<br />
In addition, the traditional Jewish understanding of the creation "days" of Genesis is that they are literal as well, as virtually all the Rabbis have understood in commentaries from Talmudic, Midrashic and Rabbinic sources.<ref>Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. Vol.1 (Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988. ISBN 9780932232076</ref>.<br />
<br />
===Hours of the Liturgical Day===<br />
In the Byzantine period the day was divided into two 12-hour cycles fixed by the rising and setting of the sun.<br />
:"Following Roman custom, the Byzantines began their calendrical day (''nychthemeron'') at midnight with the first hour of day (''hemera'') coming at dawn. The third hour marked midmorning, the sixth hour noon, and the ninth hour midafternoon. Evening (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Vespers hespera]]'') began at the 11th hour, and with sunset came the first hour of night (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Compline apodeipnon]]''). The interval between sunset and sunrise (''[[nyx]]'') was similarly divided into 12 hours as well as the traditional "watches" (''vigiliae'') of Roman times."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3</ref><br />
<br />
===Days of the Liturgical Week===<br />
Dr. Marcus Rautman points out that the seven-day week was known throughout the ancient world. The Roman Calendar had assigned one of the planetary deities to each day of the week. The Byzantines naturally avoided using these Latin names with their pagan echoes. They began their week with the "[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Lord%27s_Day Lord's Day]" (Kyriake), followed by an orderly succession of numbered days (Deutera, Trite, Tetarte, and Pempte), a day of "preparation" (Paraskeve), and finally Sabatton.<br />
:"Each day was devoted to remembering one or more martyrs or saints, whose observed feast days gradually eclipsed traditional festivals. Kyriake was seen as both the first and eighth day of the week, in the same way that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] was the alpha and omega of the cosmos, existing both before and after time. The second day of the week recognized angels, "the secondary luminaries as the first reflections of the primal outpouring of light," just as the sun and the moon had been observed during the Roman week. [[Saint John the Baptist|John the Baptist]], the forerunner (Prodromos) of Christ, was honored on the third day. Both the second and third days were viewed as occasions for penitence. The fourth and sixth days were dedicated to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Cross Cross] with holy songs sung in remembrance of the Crucifixion. The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] was honored on the fifth day of the week, while the seventh day was set aside for the martyrs of the church."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.5</ref><br />
<br />
==Comparative List of Dates of Creation==<br />
===Early Church Writers===<br />
* 5537 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245), Church historian.<br />
* 5529 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus] (AD 115-181), Bishop of Antioch.<br />
* '''5509 BC''' - '''Byzantine Creation Era''' or''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople."'' ''' (finalized in 7th c. AD).<br />
* 5507 BC - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'' (ca. AD 630), Byzantine universal chronicle of the world.<br />
* 5500 BC - [[Hippolytus of Rome]]. (ca. AD 234), Presbyter, writer, martyr.<br />
* '''5493 BC - Alexandrian Era''' (AD 412).<br />
* 5199 BC - [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea]], Bishop of Caesarea and Church historian (AD 324).<br />
===Other Estimates===<br />
* 5199 BC - Mentioned in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Roman Martyrology]''<ref>Roman Martyrology: Some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic Traditionalist Catholics] use the year 5199 BC, which is taken from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Catholic martyrologies], and referred to as the true date of Creation in the "''Mystical City of God''," a 17th-century mystical work written by Maria de Agreda concerning creation and the life of the Virgin Mary. This year was also used earlier by the church historian [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in 324. (V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. 1958. pp.24-25).</ref>, published by the authority of Pope Gregory XIII in 1584, later confirmed in 1630 under Pope Urban VIII.<br />
* 4963 BC - According to the Benedictine Chronology<ref>Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine]. ''Art of Verifying Dates''. 4to, [[1750]]. Printed again in folio in [[1770]].<br />
:Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine] was a Benedictine monk, born at Gourieux, in the diocese of Liege, in 1688. He died in 1746. In France the Benedictine Maurist Order presided over the publication of a remarkable series of source collections for both ecclesiastical and secular history, and sponsored the major studies of documentation and chronology of the period. (John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887. p.235.)<br><br />
:Chronology was made a new science by this order of scholars. The ''"[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Art_de_v%C3%A9rifier_les_dates Art de vérifer les dates]"'', by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Dantine] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cl%C3%A9mencet Charles Clémencet], is regarded as the chief monument of French learning in the eighteenth century. (Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p.171.)</ref>, the Creation of Adam is given this date (AD [[1750]]).<br />
* 4004 BC<ref>Anglican and Protestant: In the English-speaking world, one of the most well known estimates in modern times is that of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] (1581–1656), who proposed a date of Sunday, [[October 23]], 4004 BC, in the Julian calendar. He placed the beginning of this first day of creation, and hence the exact time of creation, at the previous nightfall. (See the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher chronology]). When Queen Victoria came to the English throne in AD 1837, 4004 B.C. was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of the world. (Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology]).</ref> - Anglican Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher]] (AD 1650).<br />
* 3952 BC - Venerable [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bede Bede] (ca. AD 725), English Benedictine monk.<br />
* 3761 BC<ref>In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Jewish calendar was reformed. F. Rühl has shown that the adoption of this era must have taken place between the year 222, when Julius Africanus reports that the Jews still retained the eight-year lunar cycle (which is referred to in the pseudepigraphal ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Book_of_Enoch Book of Enoch]'' (74:13-16); see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch Calendar]), and 276, when Anatolius makes use of the nineteen year [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] to determine Easter after the manner of the Jews. It may be further conjectured that it was introduced about the year 240-241, the first year of the fifth thousand, according to this calculation, and that the tradition which associated its determination with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_of_Nehardea Mar Samuel] (d. about 250) is justified. (F. Rühl. ''Der Ursprung der Jüdischen Weltära, in Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft''. 1898. pp. 185,202.)</ref><ref>According to the popular tradition, the epoch that Hebrew calendar currently uses, the '''Hillel World Era''', beginning [[October 7]], 3761 BC, is traditionally regarded as having been calculated by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_II Hillel II] in the 4th century AD (ca. 358 AD), but did not become universal practice until the end of the Middle Ages. Scholars of this subject however believe that the evolution of the Hebrew calendar into its present form was actually a gradual process spanning several centuries from the first to about the eighth or ninth century AD.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] [Judaism] - (ca. AD 222-276); or, (ca. AD 358 - ''Hillel World Era'').<br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
* According to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]: <br />
:Regarding questions about the scientific accuracy of the Genesis account of creation, and about various viewpoints concerning evolution, '''the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] has not dogmatized any particular view'''. What is dogmatically proclaimed is that the One Triune God created everything that exists, and that man was created in a unique way and is alone made ''in the image and likeness of God'' (Gn 1:26,27).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref><br />
:The opening words of the [[Nicene Creed]], the central doctrinal statement of Christianity, affirms that the One True God is the source of everything that exists, both physical and spiritual, both animate and inanimate: ''"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible."'' In addition, our regeneration in Christ and the resurrection of the dead are both often called the '''"New Creation"''' (2 Cor 5:17; Rev 21:1).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.1778.</ref><br />
<br />
* According to Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley Harakas], the Bible's description of creation is not a "scientific account". It is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of the origins of mankind, though important, is really quite secondary in significance to the Church's message. The central image of Adam as God's image and likeness, who also represents fallen and sinful humanity, and the new Adam, [[Jesus Christ]], who is the "beginning", the first-born of the dead (Colossians 1:18) and the "first-fruits" of those who were dead, and are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20-23), is what is really important.<ref>Fr. Stanley S. Harakas. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988. pp.88,91.</ref> <br />
<br />
* Professor Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]), a nineteenth century historian, observed that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Biblical Chronologies] are uncertain due to discrepancies in the figures in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Genesis] and other methodological factors, accounting for hundreds of different chronologies being assigned by historians. In the case of the Fathers of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, who assigned 5509 B.C. as the date of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis creation of man], he writes that it was in response to the emperor's wishes to fix an era or convenient starting point for historical computation. Therefore it was a decision of mere historical convenience, not respecting either faith or morals.<ref>Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.</ref><br />
<br />
* It may also be noted historically that while Byzantine officials and chroniclers were disconcerted by the ambiguities among the different dating and recording systems in the earlier centuries, these mattered little to most people who marked time by the orderly progression of agricultual seasons and church festivals, and by the regularity of holidays, weather cycles, and years that revealed the Divine order (''Taxis'') underlying the world.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.8</ref><br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, Christians began at an early period to adopt the Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world.<ref>Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_the_Creation_of_the_World Chronology - Era of the Creation of the World].</ref><br />
<br />
Currently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the Biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of Genesis. The older dates of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] in the ''Byzantine Creation Era'' and in its precursor, the ''Alexandrian Era'', are based on the Greek [[Septuagint]]. The later dates of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] and the Hebrew Calendar are based on the Hebrew Masoretic text. <br />
<br />
The Fathers were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Old Testament chronology,<ref>Note that according to Dr. Wacholder, [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Josephus Josephus'] chronology for the antediluvian period (pre-flood) conforms with the LXX ([[Septuagint]]), but for the Noachites (post-flood) he used the Hebrew text. He chose this method to resolve the problem of the two chronological systems.</ref> and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.602-603.</ref><br />
<br />
To this day, traditional Orthodox Christians will use the Byzantine calculation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etos_Kosmou Etos Kosmou] in conjunction with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Anno Domini] (AD) year. Both dates appear on Orthodox cornerstones, ecclesiastical calendars and formal documents. The ecclesiastical new year is still observed on [[September 1]] (or on the Gregorian Calendar's [[September 14]] for those churches which follow the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]). September [[2008]] marked the beginning of the year 7517 of this era.<br />
<br />
==Key Dates according to the Byzantine Era==<br />
* 1 AM (5509 BC) - [ Creation of the world].<br />
* 4755 AM (753 BC) - Rome was founded.<br />
* 4841 AM (667 BC) - City of [[Byzantium]] was founded.<br />
* ca. 5504 AM (4 BC) - Jesus of Nazareth was born.<br />
* ca. 5538 AM (AD 30) - Jesus Christ's crucifixion and resurrection.<br />
* 5838 AM (AD [[330]]) - [[Constantinople]] becomes the new capital of the Roman Empire.<br />
* 5888 AM (AD [[380]]) - Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire by decree of [[Theodosius I]].<br />
* 5903 AM (AD [[395]]) - Death of [[Theodosius I]] divides the Roman Empire into East and West.<br />
* 6045 AM (AD [[537]]) - [[Justinian I]] decrees that the indiction must be included when designating a Byzantine year. <br />
* 6118 AM (AD [[610]]) - [[Eastern Roman Empire]] changed its official language from Latin to [[Greek language|Greek]].<br />
* 6200 AM (AD 692) - Quinisext Council; first known official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' for dating.<br />
* 6496 AM (AD 988) - Official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' by Basil II; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27 Conversion of the Rus], ''Byzantine Era'' adopted in Russia.<br />
* 6562 AM (AD [[1054]]) - [[Great Schism]] occurs between the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
* 6712 AM (AD [[1204]]) - Sack of Constantinople by soldiers of the [[Fourth Crusade]]; Latin Empire of Constantinople was established.<br />
* 6769 AM (AD [[1261]]) - Byzantine Empire is re-established; [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Double-headed_eagle Double-headed eagle] is adopted as the official flag of the Byzantine Empire by Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.<ref>Josh Fruhlinger. [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_byz.html Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Imperial Flag]. '''Flags of the World''', 27 January, 1999.</ref>.<br />
* 6961 AM (AD [[1453]]) - [[Fall of Constantinople]]. The final collapse of the Byzantine Empire. The civilization of Rome (in its most inclusive sense including both Ancient Rome and New Rome ([[Constantinople]])) lasted a total of 2,206 years.<br />
* 7000 AM (AD 1492) - Millennialist movements in Moscow due to the end of the church calendar.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
===Wikipedia===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Anno Mundi].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Book of Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_era Calendar era].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Chronology of the Bible].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_Creation Dating Creation].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo Ex nihilo].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameron Hexameron].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar Julian calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar Lunisolar calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint Septuagint].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism Young Earth creationism].<br />
'''Principal Considerations for the Byzantine Calendar'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation according to Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle_(calendar) Solar cycle (calendar)] (28-year solar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] (19 year lunar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiction Indiction] (15 year indiction cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computus Easter Computus].<br />
'''Other Judeo-Christian Eras'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_calendar Coptic Calendar]. (Note that the '''"''Alexandrian Era''"''' (March 25, 5493 BC), is distinct from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", which is derived from the ancient [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian Calendar] and based on the ''' ''Era of the Martyrs'' '''(August 29, 284)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_calendar Ethiopian Calendar]. (Derived from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", and based on the ''' ''Incarnation Era'' ''' (August 29, AD 8)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar#Epoch_year Hebrew calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher_chronology].<br />
===Other External Links===<br />
'''In Greek'''<br />
* [http://el.orthodoxwiki.org/%CE%88%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85 Έτος Κόσμου].<br />
'''OrthodoxWiki'''<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Septuagint Septuagint]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Genesis Genesis]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Evolution Evolution]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gaussian_Formulae Gaussian Formulae]<br />
'''Hebrew Calendar'''<br />
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=438&letter=E#1154 The Era of the Creation] at Jewish Encyclopedia. <br />
* [http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Fact-Archive.com<br />
* [http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Absolute Astronomy.<br />
* [http://www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar] by Karl Hagen (medievalist).<br />
'''Other'''<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Labyrinth/2398/bginfo/trade/time.html Byzantine ways of reckoning time]<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_Constantinople Era of Constantinople] at Classic Encyclopedia (''Based on the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911'').<br />
* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. Charles Ellis, University of Bristol. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.smso.net/Calendar_era#Christian_era Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era] at SMSO Encyclopedia (''Saudi Medical Site Online'').<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In, '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/chronology.html Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs].<br />
* Dr. Stephen C. Meyers. [http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodusdate.htm Biblical Archaeology: The Date of the Exodus According to Ancient Writers]. Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies (IBSS). Updated April 30, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Young_earth_creationism Young earth creationism] at CreationWiki.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Theory_of_evolution Theory of evolution] at CreationWiki.<br />
<br />
==Bibliography and Further Reading==<br />
===Primary Sources===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas]. ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. (Vol.1 - Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates]. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.<br />
* St. [[Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''Volume VIII - Basil: Letters and Select Works'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.<br />
* St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV.<br />
* ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated. <br> <br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes]. ''The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813''. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).<br />
<br />
===Secondary Sources===<br />
'''21st century'''<br />
* Anthony Bryer. ''“Chronology and Dating”''. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pnkxofhi4mQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies].''' Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31-37.<br />
* Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000.<br />
* Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.<br />
* Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.<br />
* Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.<br />
* Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. '''21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies''', London 2006.<br />
* Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). ''[http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]''. '''The Literary Encyclopedia'''. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire].''' Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3–8.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PVCUZ7BTD2gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enoch+74%22+AND+%22cycle%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity]''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (''Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission'').<br />
* ''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. <br />
<br />
'''20th century'''<br />
* Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology] at Classic Encyclopedia (''based on the 11th ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica, pub.1911'').<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451–481.<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography''. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.<br />
* Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC&printsec=frontcover Chronology of the Old Testament]''. Master Books, AZ, 1993. Repr. 2005. ''(supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).''<br />
* E.G. Richards. ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History''. Oxford University Press, 1998. <br />
* Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley S. Harakas]. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.<br />
* George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp.2–18.<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <br />
* Jack Finegan. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible''. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. <br />
* K.A. Worp. ''[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/9250/1/5_039_134.pdf Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents]''. 1985. University of Amsterdam.<br />
* Prof. Dr. William Adler. ''Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus''. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. <br />
* Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''"Era."'' '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]'''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].<br />
* Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. ''The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt''. Zutphen, 1978. <br />
* V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.<br />
* Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.<br />
* Yiannis E. Meimaris. ''Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia''. Athens, 1992.<br />
<br />
'''19th Century and Earlier'''<br />
* John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887.<br />
* Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Pozna%C5%84ski Samuel Poznański]. ''Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar.'' in '''The Jewish Quarterly Review''', Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), pp. 152–161.<br />
* Sir [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Browne Thomas Browne]. ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo61.html Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 - Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical]''. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. pp. 321-330.<br />
* ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.<br />
<br />
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''This article incorporates text from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Byzantine_Creation_Era Byzantine Creation Era] at [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki] under the terms of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Free Documentation License].'' <br />
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[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]<br />
[[Category:Timelines]]<br />
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Byzantine_Creation_Era&diff=39440Byzantine Creation Era2009-07-23T16:01:30Z<p>Angellight 888: cleanup.</p>
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<div>The '''Byzantine Creation Era''', also ''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople,"'' ''' or ''' ''"Era of the World"'' ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''' ''Έτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατά 'Ρωμαίους'' ''',<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''How Old is The World? The Byzantine Era and its Rivals''. Institute for World History, Moscow, Russia. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, Fiona K. Haarer, Judith Gilliland. '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=YWec0i621ekC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21-26 August, 2006: Vol. 3, Abstracts of Communications].''' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. pp. 23-24.</ref> also ''' ''Έτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου'' ''' or ''' ''Έτος Κόσμου'' ''') was the Calendar officially used by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] from ca. AD 691 to 1728 in the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], by the [[Byzantine Empire]]<ref>i.e. '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. The term Byzantine was invented by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1557 but was popularized by French scholars during the 18th century to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. The citizens of the empire considered themselves ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), their emperor was the "Roman Emperor", and their empire the ''Basileia ton Romaion'' ("Empire of the Romans"). The Latin West designated the empire as "Romania", and the Muslims as "Rum".</ref> from AD 988 to [[1453]], and in [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Russia Holy Russia] from ca. AD 988 to 1700. Its year one, the date of creation, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC.<br />
<br />
Derived from the [[Septuagint]], it placed the date of creation at 5,509 years before the Incarnation, and was characterized by a certain tendency which had already been a tradition amongst Hebrews and Jews to number the years ''from the foundation of the world''<ref>The phrase ''"Apo Kataboles Kosmou"'' (''"from the foundation of the world"'') occurs in Matthew 25:34, Luke 11:50, Hebrews 4:3, 9:26, and Revelation 13:8, 17:8.</ref> (Greek - ''‘Etos Kosmou/Apo Kataboles Kosmou’'', or Latin - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Annus Mundi]/‘Ab Origine Mundi’'' ('''AM''')).<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
We do not know who invented this era and when, however it appears for the first time in the treatise of a certain “monk and priest”, Georgios (AD 638-39), who mentions all the main variants of the ''"World Era"'' (''Ére Mondiale'') in his work.<ref>Fr. Diekamp, ''“Der Mönch und Presbyter Georgios, ein unbekannter Schriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts,”'' BZ 9 (1900) 14–51.</ref><ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.3.</ref>. Georgios makes it clear that the main advantage of the Byzantine era is the common starting point of the astronomical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar lunar and solar cycles], and of the cycle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indictions], the usual dating system in Byzantium since the sixth century. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus. Complex calculations of the 19-year lunar and 28-year solar cycles within this world era allowed scholars to discover the cosmic significance of certain historical dates, such as the birth of Christ or the Crucifixion.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Daily+Life+in+the+Byzantine+Empire ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.7</ref> <br />
<br />
This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the seventh century A.D., although its precursors were developed circa AD 412 (see [[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|''Alexandrian Era'']]). By the second half of the 7th century the ''Creation Era'' was known in the far West of Europe, in Britain.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4. (PL XC, 598, 877 (Pseudo‐Beda)).</ref> By the late tenth century around AD 988, when the era appears in use on offical government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world.<br />
<br />
The era was ultimately calculated as starting on [[September 1|September 1st]], and Jesus Christ was thought to have been born in the year 5509 ''Annus Mundi'' (AM) - the year since the creation of the world.<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref>. Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christ's birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'' since the date of Christ's birth was debated in Constantinople as late as the fourteenth century. Otherwise the ''Creation Era'' was identical to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]] except that: <br />
:*the names of the months were transcribed from Latin into Greek, <br />
:*the first day of the year was [[September 1]],<ref>About the year 462 the Byzantine [http://orthodoxwiki.org/IndictionIndiction] was moved from [[September 23]] to [[September 1]], where it remained throughout the rest of the Byzantine Empire, representing the present day beginning of the Church year. In [[537]] Justinian decreed that all dates must include the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indiction], so it was officially adopted as one way to identify a Byzantine year, becoming compulsory.</ref> so that both the Ecclesiatical and Civil calendar years ran from [[September 1|1 September]] to [[August 31|31 August]], (see [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]), which to the present day is the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church year]], and,<br />
:*the date of creation, '''its year one, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC'''.<br />
<br />
The ''Creation Era'' was gradually replaced in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] by the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'', which was utilized initially by Patriarch [[Theophanes I of Constantinople|Theophanes I Karykes]] in 1597, afterwards by Patriarch [[Cyril Lucaris]] in 1626, and then formally established by the Church in 1728.<ref>"Οικουμενικόν Πατριαρχείον", ΘHE, τόμ. 09, εκδ. Μαρτίνος Αθ., Αθήνα 1966, στ. 778.<br>(''"Ecumenical Patriarchate"''. '''Religious and Ethical Encyclopedia.''' Vol. 9., Athens, 1966. p.778.)</ref> Meanwhile as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the ''Creation Era'' (translated into Slavonic). After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the ''Creation Era'' continued to be used by Russia, which witnessed millennialist movements in Moscow in AD 1492 (7000 AM) due to the end of the church calendar. It was only in 1700 that the ''Creation Era'' in Russia was changed to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar] by Peter the Great.<ref>Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. ''The Literary Encyclopedia''. 25 September, 2008.</ref>. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today. September AD [[2000]] began the year 7509 AM.<ref>To convert our era to the Byzantine era, add 5509 years from September to December, and 5508 years from January to August.</ref><br />
<br />
===Earliest Christian Sources on the Age of the World===<br />
The earliest extant Christian writings on the age of the world according to the Biblical chronology are by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus]] (AD 115-181), the sixth bishop of Antioch from the Apostles, in his apologetic work ''To Autolycus'',<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).</ref> and by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245) in his ''Five Books of Chronology'' <ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''</ref>. Both of these early Christian writers, following the [[Septuagint]] version of the Old Testament, determined the age of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From a scholarly point of view Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] on this subject are of vital significance (''even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the [[Septuagint]], as compared to that of the Hebrew text''), in that through the Christian chronographers a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers<ref>Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275-194 B.C.) represented contemporary Alexandrian scholarship; Eupolemus, a Palestinian Jew and a friend of Judah Maccabee, writing in 158 B.C., is said to have been the first historian who synchronized Greek history in accordance with the theory of the Mosaic origin of culture. By the time of the first century B.C., a world chronicle had synchronized Jewish and Greek history and had gained international circulation: Alexander Polyhistor (flourishing in 85-35 B.C.); Varro (116-27 B.C.); Ptolemy of Mendes (50 B.C.); Apion (first century A.D.); Thrasyllus (before A.D. 36); and Thallus (first century A.D.) - all cited chronicles which had incorporated the dates of the Noachite flood and the exodus.</ref> is preserved:<br />
<br />
:An immense intellectual effort was expended during the Hellenistic period by both Jews and pagans to date creation, the flood, exodus, building of the Temple... In the course of their studies, men such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatian Tatian of Antioch]] (flourished in 180), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Clement_of_Alexandria Clement of Alexandria] (died before 215), [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (died in 235), [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]] of Jerusalem (died after 240), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in Palestine (260-340), and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers of the Hellenistic period, thereby allowing discernment of more distant scholarship.<ref>Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451-452.</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Hellenistic Jewish writer Demetrius (flourishing 221-204 B.C.) wrote ''On the Kings of Judea'' which dealt with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology; he computed the date of the flood and the birth of Abraham exactly as in the [[Septuagint]], and first established the '' '''Annus Adami''' - Era of Adam'', the antecedent of the Hebrew ''World Era'', and of the Alexandrian and Byzantine ''Creation Eras''.<br />
<br />
===Alexandrian Era===<br />
The ''' ''"Alexandrian Era"'' ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '' '''Κόσμου ετη κατ’ Αλεξανδρεις''' '' developed AD 412, was the precursor to the ''Byzantine Creation Era''. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others<ref>The ''' ''Era of Antioch'' ''' (5492 BC) and ''' ''Era of Alexandria'' ''' (5502 BC) were originally two different formations, differing by 10 years. They were both much in use by the early Christian writers attached to the Churches of Alexandria and Antioch. However after the year AD 284 the two eras coincided, settling on 5492 BC. (''"Epoch: Era of Antioch and Era of Alexandra."'' In: ''' ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' '''(Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841. p.73.)</ref>, the Alexandrian computation of the date of creation was worked out to be [[March 25|25 March]] 5493 BC.<ref>Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. p.73.</ref>. <br />
<br />
The Alexandrine monk Panodoros reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD 412. His years began with [[August 29]], corresponding to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thout First of Thoth], or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian]] new year.<ref>Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].</ref> Bishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annianus_of_Alexandria Annianos of Alexandria]] however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, the 25th of March, and shifted the Panodoros era by about six months, to begin on 25 March 5492 BC. This created the ''Alexandrian Era'', whose first day was the first day of the proleptic<ref>A calendar obtained by extension earlier in time than its invention or implementation is called the "proleptic" version of the calendar</ref> Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August, 5493 BC, with the ecclesiatical year beginning on 25 March, 5493 BC. <br />
<br />
:This system presents in a masterly sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the world's history: the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation, and the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ. All these events happened, according to the Alexandrian chronology, on the 25th of March; furthermore, the first two events were separated by the period of exactly 5500 years; the first and the third one occurred on Sunday — the sacred day of the beginning of the Creation and its renovation through Christ.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
Pope [[Dionysius of Alexandria]] had earlier emphatically quoted mystical justifications for the choice of March 25th as the start of the year:<br />
:[[March 25]] was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itself. It was the first day of the year in the medieval [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_calendar Julian calendar] and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian calendar was originally designed). Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned [[March 25]] into the Feast of the [[Annunciation]] which had to be followed, nine months later, by the celebration of the [[Nativity|birth of Christ]], Christmas, on [[December 25]].<br />
<br />
The ''Alexandrian Era'' of [[March 25]] 5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_the_Confessor Maximus the Confessor] and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor], as well as chroniclers such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Syncellus]. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles. However this masterpiece of Christian symbolism had two serious weak points: historical inaccuracy surrounding the date of [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] as determined by its [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus,<ref>In the commonly used 19‐year [[Holy Easter|Easter]] moon cycle, there was no year when the Passover (the first spring full moon, Nisan 14) would coincide with Friday and the traditional date of the Passion, [[March 25]]; according to Alexandrian system the date would have to have been Anno Mundi 5533 = 42(!)AD.</ref> and its contradiction to the chronology of the Gospel of [[Apostle John|St John]] regarding the date of the [[Crucifixion]] on Friday after the Passover.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
===Chronicon Paschale===<br />
A new variant of the ''World Era'' was suggested in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'', a valuable Byzantine universal chronicle of the world, composed about the year 630 AD by some representative of the Antiochian scholarly tradition.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref> It had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year A.D. 627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible and begins with [[March 21|21 March]], 5507.<br />
<br />
For its influence on Greek Christian chronology, and also because of its wide scope, the ''"Chronicon Paschale"'' takes its place beside [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius], and the chronicle of the monk [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus Georgius Syncellus]<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref> which was so important in the Middle Ages; but in respect of form it is inferior to these works.<ref>Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.</ref><br />
<br />
By the late tenth century the ''Byzantine Creation Era'', which had become fixed at [[September 1]] 5509 BC since at least the seventh century (differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian date, and 2 years from the ''Chronicon Paschale''), had become the widely accepted calendar of choice ''par excellence'' for Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.<br />
<br />
==Accounts in Church Fathers==<br />
'''St. John Chrysostom'''<br />
<br />
St. [[John Chrysostom]] says clearly in his Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''", that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years."<ref>St. John Chrysostom. Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''" 1:2.</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Isaac the Syrian'''<br />
<br />
St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria Isaac the Syrian] writes in a Homily that before [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"for five thousand years five hundred and some years God left Adam (i.e. man) to labor on the earth."<ref>St. Isaac the Syrian. Homily 19, Russian edition, pp. 85 [Homily 29, English edition, p.143].</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Augustine'''<br />
<br />
[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Augustine_of_Hippo Blessed Augustine] writes in the ''City of God'' (written AD 413-426):<br />
: "Let us omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race...They are deceived by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousands of years, though reckoning by the sacred writings we find that not 6,000 years have passed. (''City of God'' 12:10)<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.236.</ref>.<br />
Augustine goes on to say that the ancient Greek chronology "does not exceed the true account of the duration of the world as it is given in our documents [i.e. the Scriptures], which are truly sacred."<br />
<br />
'''St. Hippolytus'''<br />
<br />
St. [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (ca.170-235) maintained on Scriptural grounds that the Lord's birth took place in 5500 AM, and held that the birth of Christ took place on a passover day, deducing that its month-date was [[March 25|25 March]]<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.6.</ref> (see ''[[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|Alexandrian Era]]''). He gave the following intervals:<br />
<br />
:"...from Adam to the flood 2242 years, thence to Abraham 1141 years, thence to the Exodus 430 years, thence to the passover of Joshua 41 years, thence to the passover of Hezekiah 864 years, thence to the passover of Josiah 114 years, thence to the passover of Ezra 107 years, and thence to the birth of Christ 563 years."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.5.</ref>.<br />
<br />
In his ''Commentary on Daniel'', one of his earlier writings, he proceeds to set out additional reasons for accepting the date of 5500 AM:<br />
:"First he quotes Exod. xxv. 10f. and pointing out that the length, breadth and height of the Ark of the Covenant amount in all to 5 1/2 cubits, says that these symbolize the 5,500 years from Adam at the end of which the Saviour was born. He then quotes from Jn. xix. 14 ' ''it was about the sixth hour'' ' and, understanding by that 5 1/2 hours, takes each hour to correspond to a thousand years of the world's life..."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
Around AD 202 Hippolytus held that the Lord was born in the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus<ref>It is likely that his reckoning is from B.C. 43, the year in which Octavian was declared consul by senate and people and recognized as the adopted son and heir of Caesar. Epiphanius, (''Haeres'') also puts the Lord's birth in the 42nd year of Augustus when Octavius Augustus xiii and Silanus were consuls; and they were consuls in 2 B.C.</ref> and that he was born in 5500AM. In his ''Commentary on Daniel'' he did not need to establish the precise year of the Lord's birth; he is not concerned about the day of the week, the month-date, or even the year; it was sufficient for his purpose to show that Christ was born in the days of Augustus in 5500 AM.<br />
<br />
'''Quinisext Council'''<br />
<br />
It is referred to indirectly in '''Canon III''' of the '''[[Quinisext Council]]''', which the Orthodox Churches consider as ecumenical, its canons being added to the decrees of the [[Second Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] and [[Third Council of Constantinople|Sixth]] Councils, as follows:<br />
:"... as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, ''in the last fourth [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]'', '''in the year six thousand one hundred and ninety [6190]''', ..."<ref>''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated.<br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983).</ref><br />
<br />
==Accounts in Byzantine Authors==<br />
From Justinian's decree in AD 537 that all dates must include the Indiction, the unification of the theological date of creation (as yet unfinalized) with the administrative system of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction] cycles became commonly referred to amongst [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians Byzantine authors], to whom the indiction was the standard measurement of time.<br />
<br />
'''In Official Documents'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, in the year AD 691 we find the ''Creation Era'' in the Acts of the [[Quinisext Council]] (so‐called Synodos Quinisexta).<br />
<br />
We find the era also in the dating of the so called ''Letter of three Patriarchs'' to the emperor Theophilos (April, indiction 14, 6344 = 836 AD).<br />
<br />
By the tenth century the ''Byzantine Era'' is found in the ''Novellas'' of A.D. 947, 962, 964, and most surely of the year A.D. 988, all dated in this way, as well as the Act of patriarch Nicholaos II Chrysobergos in A.D. 987.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
'''John Skylitzes'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Skylitzes John Skylitzes'] (ca.1081-1118) major work is the ''Synopsis of Histories'', which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael IV in 1057; it continues the chronicle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor]. Quoting from him as an example of the common Byzantine dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that:<br />
<br />
:"In the '''year 6508''' [1000], '''in the thirteenth indiction''', the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountains,..."<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref><br />
<br />
'''Niketas Choniates'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates Niketas Choniates]] (ca. 1155–1215), sometimes called Acominatus, was a Byzantine Greek historian. His chief work is his ''History'', in twenty-one books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. Again, an example of the dating method can be seen as he refers to the fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade as follows:<br />
<br />
:"The [[Constantinople|queen of cities]] fell to the Latins on the twelfth day of the month of April of the '''seventh indiction in the year 6712''' ([[1204]])."<ref>Niketas Choniates. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984. p.338</ref><br />
<br />
'''Doukas'''<br />
<br />
The historian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas], writing circa AD 1460, makes a detailed account for the ''Creation Era''. Although unrefined in style, the history of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas] is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the closing years of the Byzantine empire. <br />
<br />
:"From Adam, the first man created by God, to Noah, at whose time the flood took place, there were ten generations. The first, which was from God, was that of Adam. The second, after 230 years, was that of Seth begotten of Adam. The third, 205 years after Seth, was that of Enos begotten of Seth. The fourth, 190 years after Enos, was that of Kainan begotten of Enos. The fifth, 170 years after Kainan, was that of Mahaleel begotten of Kainan. The sixth, 165 years after Mahaleel, was that of Jared begotten of Mahaleel. The seventh, 162 years after Jared, was that of Enoch begotten of Jared. The eighth, 165 years after Enoch, was that of Methuselah begotten of Enoch. The ninth, 167 years after Methuselah, was that of Lamech begotten of Methuselah. The tenth, 188 years after Lamech, was that of Noah. Noah was 600 years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. Thus 2242 years may be counted from Adam to the flood.<br />
<br />
:There are also ten generations from the flood to Abraham numbering 1121 years. Abraham was seventy-five years old when he moved to the land of Canaan from Mesopotamia, and having resided there twenty-five years he begat Isaac. Isaac begat two sons, Esau and Jacob. When Jacob was 130 years old he went to Egypt with his twelve sons and grandchildren, seventy-five in number. And Abraham with his offspring dwelt in the land of Canaan 433 years, and having multiplied they numbered twelve tribes; a multitude of 600,000 were reckoned from the twelve sons of Jacob whose names are as follows: Ruben, Symeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Dan, Joseph, and Benjamin.<br />
<br />
:The descendants of Levi were Moses and Aaron; the latter was the first of the priesthood while Moses was appointed to govern. In the eightieth year of his life he walked through the Red Sea and led his people out of Egypt. This Moses flourished in the time of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inachus Inachos] [son of Oceanus and King of Argos] who was the first [Greek] king to reign. Thus the Jews are more ancient than the Greeks.<br />
<br />
:Remaining in the wilderness forty years they were governed for twenty-five years by Joshua, son of Nun, and by the Judges for 454 years to the reign of Saul, the first king installed by them. During the first year of his reign the great David was born. Thus from Abraham to David fourteen generations are numbered for a total of 1024 years. From David to the deportation to Babylon [586 BC] there are fourteen generations totalling 609 years. From the Babylonian Captivity to [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] there are fourteen generations totalling 504 years.<br />
<br />
:By the sequence of Numbers we calculate the number of 5,500 years from the time of the first Adam to Christ."<ref>Doukas (ca.1460). ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. pp.57-58.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==The Byzantine Mindset==<br />
===Literal Creation Days===<br />
Even the most mystical Fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian] accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that ''the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC''. As Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose] points out:<br />
:"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology of the Old Testament, '''from Adam onwards''', is to be accepted "literally." They did not have the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological ''precision'', but even the most mystical Fathers ([http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian]], St. [[Gregory Palamas]], etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between the creation and the Birth of Christ."<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.539-540.</ref><br />
<br />
The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] also consistently affirm that each species of the animate creation came into existence instantaneously, at the command of God, with its seed within itself.<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref> [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]] for example takes this literal view in the ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron],'' a work consisitng of nine homilies delivered by St. Basil on the cosmogony of the opening chapters of Genesis, providing one of the most detailed expositions of the six days of creation to come down to us from the early church. Basil writes in Homily I that:<br />
:"Thus then, if it is said, “''In the beginning God created,''” it is to teach us that at the will of God the world arose in less than an instant,..."<ref>St. [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.ii.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''VOLUME VIII - BASIL: LETTERS AND SELECT WORKS'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.</ref><br />
<br />
Typical of the Christian conviction on this point, St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers] also affirms that the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation] was performed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo ex nihilo]: <br />
:"For all things, as the Prophet says, were made out of nothing; it was no transformation of existing things, but the creation of the non-being into a perfect form".<ref>St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV, 16.</ref><br />
The prophet cited by St.Hilary was the mother of the Maccabean martyrs, who said to one of her tortured sons, ''"I beseech you, my child, to look at heaven and earth and see everything in them, and know that God made them out of nothing; so also He made the race of man in this way"''<ref>''The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]'' ([Septuagint]). St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.653.</ref> (2 Maccabees 7:28).<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] 7:28), p.34.</ref> This text from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] was the standard biblical proof text for the Christian Church in respect to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo creation from nothingness]. We find the thesis in late Judaism, from which it passed into the Christian faith as an essential teaching.<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. pp.34-35.</ref><br />
<br />
In addition, the traditional Jewish understanding of the creation "days" of Genesis is that they are literal as well, as virtually all the Rabbis have understood in commentaries from Talmudic, Midrashic and Rabbinic sources.<ref>Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. Vol.1 (Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988. ISBN 9780932232076</ref>.<br />
<br />
===Hours of the Liturgical Day===<br />
In the Byzantine period the day was divided into two 12-hour cycles fixed by the rising and setting of the sun.<br />
:"Following Roman custom, the Byzantines began their calendrical day (''nychthemeron'') at midnight with the first hour of day (''hemera'') coming at dawn. The third hour marked midmorning, the sixth hour noon, and the ninth hour midafternoon. Evening (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Vespers hespera]]'') began at the 11th hour, and with sunset came the first hour of night (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Compline apodeipnon]]''). The interval between sunset and sunrise (''[[nyx]]'') was similarly divided into 12 hours as well as the traditional "watches" (''vigiliae'') of Roman times."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3</ref><br />
<br />
===Days of the Liturgical Week===<br />
Dr. Marcus Rautman points out that the seven-day week was known throughout the ancient world. The Roman Calendar had assigned one of the planetary deities to each day of the week. The Byzantines naturally avoided using these Latin names with their pagan echoes. They began their week with the "[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Lord%27s_Day Lord's Day]" (Kyriake), followed by an orderly succession of numbered days (Deutera, Trite, Tetarte, and Pempte), a day of "preparation" (Paraskeve), and finally Sabatton.<br />
:"Each day was devoted to remembering one or more martyrs or saints, whose observed feast days gradually eclipsed traditional festivals. Kyriake was seen as both the first and eighth day of the week, in the same way that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] was the alpha and omega of the cosmos, existing both before and after time. The second day of the week recognized angels, "the secondary luminaries as the first reflections of the primal outpouring of light," just as the sun and the moon had been observed during the Roman week. [[Saint John the Baptist|John the Baptist]], the forerunner (Prodromos) of Christ, was honored on the third day. Both the second and third days were viewed as occasions for penitence. The fourth and sixth days were dedicated to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Cross Cross] with holy songs sung in remembrance of the Crucifixion. The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] was honored on the fifth day of the week, while the seventh day was set aside for the martyrs of the church."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.5</ref><br />
<br />
==Comparative List of Dates of Creation==<br />
===Early Church Writers===<br />
* 5537 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245), Church historian.<br />
* 5529 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus] (AD 115-181), Bishop of Antioch.<br />
* '''5509 BC''' - '''Byzantine Creation Era''' or''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople."'' ''' (finalized in 7th c. AD).<br />
* 5507 BC - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'' (ca. AD 630), Byzantine universal chronicle of the world.<br />
* 5500 BC - [[Hippolytus of Rome]]. (ca. AD 234), Presbyter, writer, martyr.<br />
* '''5493 BC - Alexandrian Era''' (AD 412).<br />
* 5199 BC - [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea]], Bishop of Caesarea and Church historian (AD 324).<br />
===Other Estimates===<br />
* 5199 BC - Mentioned in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Roman Martyrology]''<ref>Roman Martyrology: Some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic Traditionalist Catholics] use the year 5199 BC, which is taken from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Catholic martyrologies], and referred to as the true date of Creation in the "''Mystical City of God''," a 17th-century mystical work written by Maria de Agreda concerning creation and the life of the Virgin Mary. This year was also used earlier by the church historian [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in 324. (V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. 1958. pp.24-25).</ref>, published by the authority of Pope Gregory XIII in 1584, later confirmed in 1630 under Pope Urban VIII.<br />
* 4963 BC - According to the Benedictine Chronology<ref>Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine]. ''Art of Verifying Dates''. 4to, [[1750]]. Printed again in folio in [[1770]].<br />
:Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine] was a Benedictine monk, born at Gourieux, in the diocese of Liege, in 1688. He died in 1746. In France the Benedictine Maurist Order presided over the publication of a remarkable series of source collections for both ecclesiastical and secular history, and sponsored the major studies of documentation and chronology of the period. (John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887. p.235.)<br><br />
:Chronology was made a new science by this order of scholars. The ''"[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Art_de_v%C3%A9rifier_les_dates Art de vérifer les dates]"'', by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Dantine] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cl%C3%A9mencet Charles Clémencet], is regarded as the chief monument of French learning in the eighteenth century. (Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p.171.)</ref>, the Creation of Adam is given this date (AD [[1750]]).<br />
* 4004 BC<ref>Anglican and Protestant: In the English-speaking world, one of the most well known estimates in modern times is that of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] (1581–1656), who proposed a date of Sunday, [[October 23]], 4004 BC, in the Julian calendar. He placed the beginning of this first day of creation, and hence the exact time of creation, at the previous nightfall. (See the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher chronology]). When Queen Victoria came to the English throne in AD 1837, 4004 B.C. was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of the world. (Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology]).</ref> - Anglican Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher]] (AD 1650).<br />
* 3952 BC - Venerable [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bede Bede] (ca. AD 725), English Benedictine monk.<br />
* 3761 BC<ref>In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Jewish calendar was reformed. F. Rühl has shown that the adoption of this era must have taken place between the year 222, when Julius Africanus reports that the Jews still retained the eight-year lunar cycle (which is referred to in the pseudepigraphal ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Book_of_Enoch Book of Enoch]'' (74:13-16); see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch Calendar]), and 276, when Anatolius makes use of the nineteen year [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] to determine Easter after the manner of the Jews. It may be further conjectured that it was introduced about the year 240-241, the first year of the fifth thousand, according to this calculation, and that the tradition which associated its determination with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_of_Nehardea Mar Samuel] (d. about 250) is justified. (F. Rühl. ''Der Ursprung der Jüdischen Weltära, in Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft''. 1898. pp. 185,202.)</ref><ref>According to the popular tradition, the epoch that Hebrew calendar currently uses, the '''Hillel World Era''', beginning [[October 7]], 3761 BC, is traditionally regarded as having been calculated by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_II Hillel II] in the 4th century AD (ca. 358 AD), but did not become universal practice until the end of the Middle Ages. Scholars of this subject however believe that the evolution of the Hebrew calendar into its present form was actually a gradual process spanning several centuries from the first to about the eighth or ninth century AD.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] [Judaism] - (ca. AD 222-276); or, (ca. AD 358 - ''Hillel World Era'').<br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
* According to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]: <br />
:Regarding questions about the scientific accuracy of the Genesis account of creation, and about various viewpoints concerning evolution, '''the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] has not dogmatized any particular view'''. What is dogmatically proclaimed is that the One Triune God created everything that exists, and that man was created in a unique way and is alone made ''in the image and likeness of God'' (Gn 1:26,27).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref><br />
:The opening words of the [[Nicene Creed]], the central doctrinal statement of Christianity, affirms that the One True God is the source of everything that exists, both physical and spiritual, both animate and inanimate: ''"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible."'' In addition, our regeneration in Christ and the resurrection of the dead are both often called the '''"New Creation"''' (2 Cor 5:17; Rev 21:1).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.1778.</ref><br />
<br />
* According to Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley Harakas], the Bible's description of creation is not a "scientific account". It is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of the origins of mankind, though important, is really quite secondary in significance to the Church's message. The central image of Adam as God's image and likeness, who also represents fallen and sinful humanity, and the new Adam, [[Jesus Christ]], who is the "beginning", the first-born of the dead (Colossians 1:18) and the "first-fruits" of those who were dead, and are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20-23), is what is really important.<ref>Fr. Stanley S. Harakas. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988. pp.88,91.</ref> <br />
<br />
* Professor Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]), a nineteenth century historian, observed that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Biblical Chronologies] are uncertain due to discrepancies in the figures in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Genesis] and other methodological factors, accounting for hundreds of different chronologies being assigned by historians. In the case of the Fathers of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, who assigned 5509 B.C. as the date of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis creation of man], he writes that it was in response to the emperor's wishes to fix an era or convenient starting point for historical computation. Therefore it was a decision of mere historical convenience, not respecting either faith or morals.<ref>Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.</ref><br />
<br />
* It may also be noted historically that while Byzantine officials and chroniclers were disconcerted by the ambiguities among the different dating and recording systems in the earlier centuries, these mattered little to most people who marked time by the orderly progression of agricultual seasons and church festivals, and by the regularity of holidays, weather cycles, and years that revealed the Divine order (''Taxis'') underlying the world.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.8</ref><br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, Christians began at an early period to adopt the Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world.<ref>Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_the_Creation_of_the_World Chronology - Era of the Creation of the World].</ref><br />
<br />
Currently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the Biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of Genesis. The older dates of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] in the ''Byzantine Creation Era'' and in its precursor, the ''Alexandrian Era'', are based on the Greek [[Septuagint]]. The later dates of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] and the Hebrew Calendar are based on the Hebrew Masoretic text. <br />
<br />
The Fathers were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Old Testament chronology,<ref>Note that according to Dr. Wacholder, [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Josephus Josephus'] chronology for the antediluvian period (pre-flood) conforms with the LXX ([[Septuagint]]), but for the Noachites (post-flood) he used the Hebrew text. He chose this method to resolve the problem of the two chronological systems.</ref> and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.602-603.</ref><br />
<br />
To this day, traditional Orthodox Christians will use the Byzantine calculation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etos_Kosmou Etos Kosmou] in conjunction with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Anno Domini] (AD) year. Both dates appear on Orthodox cornerstones, ecclesiastical calendars and formal documents. The ecclesiastical new year is still observed on [[September 1]] (or on the Gregorian Calendar's [[September 14]] for those churches which follow the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]). September [[2008]] marked the beginning of the year 7517 of this era.<br />
<br />
==Key Dates according to the Byzantine Era==<br />
* 1 AM (5509 BC) - [ Creation of the world].<br />
* 4755 AM (753 BC) - Rome was founded.<br />
* 4841 AM (667 BC) - City of [[Byzantium]] was founded.<br />
* ca. 5504 AM (4 BC) - Jesus of Nazareth was born.<br />
* ca. 5538 AM (AD 30) - Jesus Christ's crucifixion and resurrection.<br />
* 5838 AM (AD [[330]]) - [[Constantinople]] becomes the new capital of the Roman Empire.<br />
* 5888 AM (AD [[380]]) - Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire by decree of [[Theodosius I]].<br />
* 5903 AM (AD [[395]]) - Death of [[Theodosius I]] divides the Roman Empire into East and West.<br />
* 6045 AM (AD [[537]]) - [[Justinian I]] decrees that the indiction must be included when designating a Byzantine year. <br />
* 6118 AM (AD [[610]]) - [[Eastern Roman Empire]] changed its official language from Latin to [[Greek language|Greek]].<br />
* 6200 AM (AD 692) - Quinisext Council; first known official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' for dating.<br />
* 6496 AM (AD 988) - Official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' by Basil II; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27 Conversion of the Rus], ''Byzantine Era'' adopted in Russia.<br />
* 6562 AM (AD [[1054]]) - [[Great Schism]] occurs between the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
* 6712 AM (AD [[1204]]) - Sack of Constantinople by soldiers of the [[Fourth Crusade]]; Latin Empire of Constantinople was established.<br />
* 6769 AM (AD [[1261]]) - Byzantine Empire is re-established; [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Double-headed_eagle Double-headed eagle] is adopted as the official flag of the Byzantine Empire by Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.<ref>Josh Fruhlinger. [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_byz.html Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Imperial Flag]. '''Flags of the World''', 27 January, 1999.</ref>.<br />
* 6961 AM (AD [[1453]]) - [[Fall of Constantinople]]. The final collapse of the Byzantine Empire. The civilization of Rome (in its most inclusive sense including both Ancient Rome and New Rome ([[Constantinople]])) lasted a total of 2,206 years.<br />
* 7000 AM (AD 1492) - Millennialist movements in Moscow due to the end of the church calendar.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
===Wikipedia===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Anno Mundi].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Book of Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_era Calendar era].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Chronology of the Bible].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_Creation Dating Creation].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo Ex nihilo].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameron Hexameron].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar Julian calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar Lunisolar calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint Septuagint].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism Young Earth creationism].<br />
'''Principal Considerations for the Byzantine Calendar'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation according to Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle_(calendar) Solar cycle (calendar)] (28-year solar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] (19 year lunar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiction Indiction] (15 year indiction cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computus Easter Computus].<br />
'''Other Judeo-Christian Eras'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_calendar Coptic Calendar]. (Note that the '''"''Alexandrian Era''"''' (March 25, 5493 BC), is distinct from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", which is derived from the ancient [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian Calendar] and based on the ''' ''Era of the Martyrs'' '''(August 29, 284)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_calendar Ethiopian Calendar]. (Derived from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", and based on the ''' ''Incarnation Era'' ''' (August 29, AD 8)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar#Epoch_year Hebrew calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher_chronology].<br />
===Other External Links===<br />
'''In Greek'''<br />
* [http://el.orthodoxwiki.org/%CE%88%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85 Έτος Κόσμου].<br />
'''OrthodoxWiki'''<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Septuagint Septuagint]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Genesis Genesis]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Evolution Evolution]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gaussian_Formulae Gaussian Formulae]<br />
'''Hebrew Calendar'''<br />
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=438&letter=E#1154 The Era of the Creation] at Jewish Encyclopedia. <br />
* [http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Fact-Archive.com<br />
* [http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Absolute Astronomy.<br />
* [http://www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar] by Karl Hagen (medievalist).<br />
'''Other'''<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Labyrinth/2398/bginfo/trade/time.html Byzantine ways of reckoning time]<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_Constantinople Era of Constantinople] at Classic Encyclopedia (''Based on the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911'').<br />
* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. Charles Ellis, University of Bristol. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.smso.net/Calendar_era#Christian_era Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era] at SMSO Encyclopedia (''Saudi Medical Site Online'').<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In, '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/chronology.html Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs].<br />
* Dr. Stephen C. Meyers. [http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodusdate.htm Biblical Archaeology: The Date of the Exodus According to Ancient Writers]. Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies (IBSS). Updated April 30, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Young_earth_creationism Young earth creationism] at CreationWiki.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Theory_of_evolution Theory of evolution] at CreationWiki.<br />
<br />
==Bibliography and Further Reading==<br />
===Primary Sources===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas]. ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. (Vol.1 - Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates]. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.<br />
* St. [[Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''Volume VIII - Basil: Letters and Select Works'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.<br />
* St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV.<br />
* ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated. <br> <br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes]. ''The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813''. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).<br />
<br />
===Secondary Sources===<br />
'''21st century'''<br />
* Anthony Bryer. ''“Chronology and Dating”''. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pnkxofhi4mQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies].''' Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31-37.<br />
* Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000.<br />
* Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.<br />
* Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.<br />
* Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.<br />
* Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. '''21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies''', London 2006.<br />
* Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). ''[http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]''. '''The Literary Encyclopedia'''. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire].''' Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3–8.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PVCUZ7BTD2gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enoch+74%22+AND+%22cycle%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity]''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (''Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission'').<br />
* ''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. <br />
<br />
'''20th century'''<br />
* Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology] at Classic Encyclopedia (''based on the 11th ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica, pub.1911'').<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451–481.<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography''. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.<br />
* Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC&printsec=frontcover Chronology of the Old Testament]''. Master Books, AZ, 1993. Repr. 2005. ''(supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).''<br />
* E.G. Richards. ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History''. Oxford University Press, 1998. <br />
* Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley S. Harakas]. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.<br />
* George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp.2–18.<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <br />
* Jack Finegan. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible''. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. <br />
* K.A. Worp. ''[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/9250/1/5_039_134.pdf Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents]''. 1985. University of Amsterdam.<br />
* Prof. Dr. William Adler. ''Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus''. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. <br />
* Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''"Era."'' '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]'''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].<br />
* Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. ''The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt''. Zutphen, 1978. <br />
* V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.<br />
* Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.<br />
* Yiannis E. Meimaris. ''Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia''. Athens, 1992.<br />
<br />
'''19th Century and Earlier'''<br />
* John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887.<br />
* Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Pozna%C5%84ski Samuel Poznański]. ''Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar.'' in '''The Jewish Quarterly Review''', Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), pp. 152–161.<br />
* Sir [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Browne Thomas Browne]. ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo61.html Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 - Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical]''. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. pp. 321-330.<br />
* ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.<br />
<br />
<br />
''This article incorporates text from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Byzantine_Creation_Era Byzantine Creation Era] at [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki] under the terms of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Free Documentation License].'' <br />
<br />
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]<br />
[[Category:Timelines]]<br />
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Byzantine_Creation_Era&diff=39341Byzantine Creation Era2009-07-10T01:21:37Z<p>Angellight 888: Links</p>
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<div>The '''Byzantine Creation Era''', also ''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople,"'' ''' or ''' ''"Era of the World"'' ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''' ''Έτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατά 'Ρωμαίους'' ''',<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''How Old is The World? The Byzantine Era and its Rivals''. Institute for World History, Moscow, Russia. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, Fiona K. Haarer, Judith Gilliland. '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=YWec0i621ekC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21-26 August, 2006: Vol. 3, Abstracts of Communications].''' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. pp. 23-24.</ref> also ''' ''Έτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου'' ''' or ''' ''Έτος Κόσμου'' ''') was the Calendar officially used by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] from ca. AD 691 to 1728 in the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], and from ca. AD 988 to 1700 in [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Russia Holy Russia], and by the [[Byzantine Empire]]<ref>i.e. '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. The term Byzantine was invented by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1557 but was popularized by French scholars during the 18th century to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. The citizens of the empire considered themselves ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), their emperor was the "Roman Emperor", and their empire the ''Basileia ton Romaion'' ("Empire of the Romans"). The Latin West designated the empire as "Romania", and the Muslims as "Rum".</ref> from AD 988 to [[1453]]. Its year one, the date of creation, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC.<br />
<br />
Derived from the [[Septuagint]], it placed the date of creation at 5,509 years before the Incarnation, and was characterized by a certain tendency which had already been a tradition amongst Hebrews and Jews to number the years ''from the foundation of the world'' (Greek - ''‘Etos Kosmou/Apo Kataboles Kosmou’'',<ref>The phrase ''"Apo Kataboles Kosmou"'' (''"from the foundation of the world"'') occurs in Matthew 25:34, Luke 11:50, Hebrews 4:3, 9:26, and Revelation 13:8, 17:8.</ref> or Latin - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Annus Mundi]/‘Ab Origine Mundi’'' ('''AM''')).<br />
<br />
We do not know who invented this era and when, however it appears for the first time in the treatise of a certain “monk and priest”, Georgios (AD 638-39), who mentions all the main variants of the ''"World Era"'' (''Ére Mondiale'') in his work.<ref>Fr. Diekamp, ''“Der Mönch und Presbyter Georgios, ein unbekannter Schriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts,”'' BZ 9 (1900) 14–51.</ref><ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.3.</ref>. Georgios makes it clear that the main advantage of the Byzantine era is the common starting point of the astronomical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar lunar and solar cycles], and of the cycle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indictions], the usual dating system in Byzantium since the sixth century. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus. Complex calculations of the 19-year lunar and 28-year solar cycles within this world era allowed scholars to discover the cosmic significance of certain historical dates, such as the birth of Christ or the Crucifixion.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Daily+Life+in+the+Byzantine+Empire ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.7</ref> <br />
<br />
This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the seventh century A.D., although its precursors were developed circa AD 412 (see [[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|''Alexandrian Era'']]). By the second half of the 7th century the ''Creation Era'' was known in the far West of Europe, in Britain.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4. (PL XC, 598, 877 (Pseudo‐Beda)).</ref> By the late tenth century around AD 988, when the era appears in use on offical government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world.<br />
<br />
The era was ultimately calculated as starting on [[September 1|September 1st]], and Jesus Christ was thought to have been born in the year 5509 ''Annus Mundi'' (AM) - the year since the creation of the world.<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref>. Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christ's birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'' since the date of Christ's birth was debated in Constantinople as late as the fourteenth century. Otherwise the ''Creation Era'' was identical to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]] except that: <br />
:*the names of the months were transcribed from Latin into Greek, <br />
:*the first day of the year was [[September 1]],<ref>About the year 462 the Byzantine [http://orthodoxwiki.org/IndictionIndiction] was moved from [[September 23]] to [[September 1]], where it remained throughout the rest of the Byzantine Empire, representing the present day beginning of the Church year. In [[537]] Justinian decreed that all dates must include the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indiction], so it was officially adopted as one way to identify a Byzantine year, becoming compulsory.</ref> so that both the Ecclesiatical and Civil calendar years ran from [[September 1|1 September]] to [[August 31|31 August]], (see [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]), which to the present day is the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church year]], and,<br />
:*the date of creation, '''its year one, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC'''.<br />
<br />
It is referred to indirectly in '''Canon III''' of the '''[[Quinisext Council]]''', which the Orthodox Churches consider as ecumenical, its canons being added to the decrees of the [[Second Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] and [[Third Council of Constantinople|Sixth]] Councils, as follows:<br />
:"... as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, ''in the last fourth [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]'', '''in the year six thousand one hundred and ninety [6190]''', ..."<ref>''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated.<br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983).</ref><br />
<br />
The ''Creation Era'' was gradually replaced in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] by the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'', which was utilized initially by Patriarch [[Theophanes I of Constantinople|Theophanes I Karykes]] in 1597, afterwards by Patriarch [[Cyril Lucaris]] in 1626, and then formally established by the Church in 1728.<ref>"Οικουμενικόν Πατριαρχείον", ΘHE, τόμ. 09, εκδ. Μαρτίνος Αθ., Αθήνα 1966, στ. 778.<br>(''"Ecumenical Patriarchate"''. '''Religious and Ethical Encyclopedia.''' Vol. 9., Athens, 1966. p.778.)</ref> Meanwhile as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the ''Creation Era'' (translated into Slavonic). After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the ''Creation Era'' continued to be used by Russia, which witnessed millennialist movements in Moscow in AD 1492 (7000 AM) due to the end of the church calendar. It was only in 1700 that the ''Creation Era'' in Russia was changed to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar] by Peter the Great.<ref>Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. ''The Literary Encyclopedia''. 25 September, 2008.</ref>. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today. September AD [[2000]] began the year 7509 AM.<ref>To convert our era to the Byzantine era, add 5509 years from September to December, and 5508 years from January to August.</ref><br />
<br />
==Important Early Calendars==<br />
During the period of Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean world there were three highly accredited calendars, namely: <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_calendar Babylonian], descendant of the Sumerian calendar, and basic contributor to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Biblical calendar]; <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian], in use since at least 2550 BC, which institutionalized a year that was 365 days long, being divided into 12 months of 30 days each; and <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiad#Era Greek] (''Era of the Olympiads''). <br />
Pliny the Elder, the Great Roman erudite scholar, attempted<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.</ref> to promote the Roman calendar as modified by Julius Caesar (i.e. the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]]) at the same level, as a ‘fourth calendar’.<ref>Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Earliest Christian Sources on the Age of the World==<br />
The earliest extant Christian writings on the age of the world according to the Biblical chronology are by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus]] (AD 115-181), the sixth bishop of Antioch from the Apostles, in his apologetic work ''To Autolycus'',<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).</ref> and by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245) in his ''Five Books of Chronology'' <ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''</ref>. Both of these early Christian writers, following the [[Septuagint]] version of the Old Testament, determined the age of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From a scholarly point of view Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] on this subject are of vital significance (''even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the [[Septuagint]], as compared to that of the Hebrew text''), in that through the Christian chronographers a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers<ref>Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275-194 B.C.) represented contemporary Alexandrian scholarship; Eupolemus, a Palestinian Jew and a friend of Judah Maccabee, writing in 158 B.C., is said to have been the first historian who synchronized Greek history in accordance with the theory of the Mosaic origin of culture. By the time of the first century B.C., a world chronicle had synchronized Jewish and Greek history and had gained international circulation: Alexander Polyhistor (flourishing in 85-35 B.C.); Varro (116-27 B.C.); Ptolemy of Mendes (50 B.C.); Apion (first century A.D.); Thrasyllus (before A.D. 36); and Thallus (first century A.D.) - all cited chronicles which had incorporated the dates of the Noachite flood and the exodus.</ref> is preserved:<br />
<br />
:An immense intellectual effort was expended during the Hellenistic period by both Jews and pagans to date creation, the flood, exodus, building of the Temple... In the course of their studies, men such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatian Tatian of Antioch]] (flourished in 180), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Clement_of_Alexandria Clement of Alexandria] (died before 215), [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (died in 235), [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]] of Jerusalem (died after 240), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in Palestine (260-340), and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers of the Hellenistic period, thereby allowing discernment of more distant scholarship.<ref>Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451-452.</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Hellenistic Jewish writer Demetrius (flourishing 221-204 B.C.) wrote ''On the Kings of Judea'' which dealt with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology; he computed the date of the flood and the birth of Abraham exactly as in the [[Septuagint]], and first established the '' '''Annus Adami''' - Era of Adam'', the antecedent of the Hebrew ''World Era'', and of the Alexandrian and Byzantine ''Creation Eras''.<br />
<br />
===Alexandrian Era===<br />
The ''' ''"Alexandrian Era"'' ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '' '''Κόσμου ετη κατ’ Αλεξανδρεις''' '' developed AD 412, was the precursor to the ''Byzantine Creation Era''. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others<ref>The ''' ''Era of Antioch'' ''' (5492 BC) and ''' ''Era of Alexandria'' ''' (5502 BC) were originally two different formations, differing by 10 years. They were both much in use by the early Christian writers attached to the Churches of Alexandria and Antioch. However after the year AD 284 the two eras coincided, settling on 5492 BC. (''"Epoch: Era of Antioch and Era of Alexandra."'' In: ''' ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' '''(Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841. p.73.)</ref>, the Alexandrian computation of the date of creation was worked out to be [[March 25|25 March]] 5493 BC.<ref>Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. p.73.</ref>. <br />
<br />
The Alexandrine monk Panodoros reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD 412. His years began with [[August 29]], corresponding to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thout First of Thoth], or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian]] new year.<ref>Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].</ref> Bishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annianus_of_Alexandria Annianos of Alexandria]] however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, the 25th of March, and shifted the Panodoros era by about six months, to begin on 25 March 5492 BC. This created the ''Alexandrian Era'', whose first day was the first day of the proleptic<ref>A calendar obtained by extension earlier in time than its invention or implementation is called the "proleptic" version of the calendar</ref> Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August, 5493 BC, with the ecclesiatical year beginning on 25 March, 5493 BC. <br />
<br />
:This system presents in a masterly sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the world's history: the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation, and the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ. All these events happened, according to the Alexandrian chronology, on the 25th of March; furthermore, the first two events were separated by the period of exactly 5500 years; the first and the third one occurred on Sunday — the sacred day of the beginning of the Creation and its renovation through Christ.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
Pope [[Dionysius of Alexandria]] had earlier emphatically quoted mystical justifications for the choice of March 25th as the start of the year:<br />
:[[March 25]] was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itself. It was the first day of the year in the medieval [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_calendar Julian calendar] and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian calendar was originally designed). Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned [[March 25]] into the Feast of the [[Annunciation]] which had to be followed, nine months later, by the celebration of the [[Nativity|birth of Christ]], Christmas, on [[December 25]].<br />
<br />
The ''Alexandrian Era'' of [[March 25]] 5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_the_Confessor Maximus the Confessor] and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor], as well as chroniclers such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Syncellus]. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles. However this masterpiece of Christian symbolism had two serious weak points: historical inaccuracy surrounding the date of [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] as determined by its [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus,<ref>In the commonly used 19‐year [[Holy Easter|Easter]] moon cycle, there was no year when the Passover (the first spring full moon, Nisan 14) would coincide with Friday and the traditional date of the Passion, [[March 25]]; according to Alexandrian system the date would have to have been Anno Mundi 5533 = 42(!)AD.</ref> and its contradiction to the chronology of the Gospel of [[Apostle John|St John]] regarding the date of the [[Crucifixion]] on Friday after the Passover.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
===Chronicon Paschale===<br />
A new variant of the ''World Era'' was suggested in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'', a valuable Byzantine universal chronicle of the world, composed about the year 630 AD by some representative of the Antiochian scholarly tradition.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref> It had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year A.D. 627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible and begins with [[March 21|21 March]], 5507.<br />
<br />
For its influence on Greek Christian chronology, and also because of its wide scope, the ''"Chronicon Paschale"'' takes its place beside [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius], and the chronicle of the monk [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus Georgius Syncellus]<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref> which was so important in the Middle Ages; but in respect of form it is inferior to these works.<ref>Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.</ref><br />
<br />
By the late tenth century the ''Byzantine Creation Era'', which had become fixed at [[September 1]] 5509 BC since at least the seventh century (differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian date, and 2 years from the ''Chronicon Paschale''), had become the widely accepted calendar of choice ''par excellence'' for Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.<br />
<br />
==Literal Creation Days==<br />
Even the most mystical Fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian] accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that ''the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC''. As Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose] points out:<br />
:"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology of the Old Testament, '''from Adam onwards''', is to be accepted "literally." They did not have the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological ''precision'', but even the most mystical Fathers ([http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian]], St. [[Gregory Palamas]], etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between the creation and the Birth of Christ."<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.539-540.</ref><br />
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The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] also consistently affirm that each species of the animate creation came into existence instantaneously, at the command of God, with its seed within itself.<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref> [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]] for example takes this literal view in the ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron],'' a work consisitng of nine homilies delivered by St. Basil on the cosmogony of the opening chapters of Genesis, providing one of the most detailed expositions of the six days of creation to come down to us from the early church. Basil writes in Homily I that:<br />
:"Thus then, if it is said, “''In the beginning God created,''” it is to teach us that at the will of God the world arose in less than an instant,..."<ref>St. [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.ii.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''VOLUME VIII - BASIL: LETTERS AND SELECT WORKS'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.</ref><br />
<br />
Typical of the Christian conviction on this point, St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers] also affirms that the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation] was performed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo ex nihilo]: <br />
:"For all things, as the Prophet says, were made out of nothing; it was no transformation of existing things, but the creation of the non-being into a perfect form".<ref>St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV, 16.</ref><br />
The prophet cited by St.Hilary was the mother of the Maccabean martyrs, who said to one of her tortured sons, ''"I beseech you, my child, to look at heaven and earth and see everything in them, and know that God made them out of nothing; so also He made the race of man in this way"''<ref>''The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]'' ([Septuagint]). St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.653.</ref> (2 Maccabees 7:28).<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] 7:28), p.34.</ref> This text from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] was the standard biblical proof text for the Christian Church in respect to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo creation from nothingness]. We find the thesis in late Judaism, from which it passed into the Christian faith as an essential teaching.<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. pp.34-35.</ref><br />
<br />
In addition, the traditional Jewish understanding of the creation "days" of Genesis is that they are literal as well, as virtually all the Rabbis have understood in commentaries from Talmudic, Midrashic and Rabbinic sources.<ref>Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. Vol.1 (Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988. ISBN 9780932232076</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Accounts in Church Fathers==<br />
'''St. John Chrysostom'''<br />
<br />
St. [[John Chrysostom]] says clearly in his Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''", that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years."<ref>St. John Chrysostom. Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''" 1:2.</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Isaac the Syrian'''<br />
<br />
St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria Isaac the Syrian] writes in a Homily that before [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"for five thousand years five hundred and some years God left Adam (i.e. man) to labor on the earth."<ref>St. Isaac the Syrian. Homily 19, Russian edition, pp. 85 [Homily 29, English edition, p.143].</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Augustine'''<br />
<br />
[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Augustine_of_Hippo Blessed Augustine] writes in the ''City of God'' (written AD 413-426):<br />
: "Let us omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race...They are deceived by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousands of years, though reckoning by the sacred writings we find that not 6,000 years have passed. (''City of God'' 12:10)<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.236.</ref>.<br />
Augustine goes on to say that the ancient Greek chronology "does not exceed the true account of the duration of the world as it is given in our documents [i.e. the Scriptures], which are truly sacred."<br />
<br />
'''St. Hippolytus'''<br />
<br />
St. [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (ca.170-235) maintained on Scriptural grounds that the Lord's birth took place in 5500 AM, and held that the birth of Christ took place on a passover day, deducing that its month-date was [[March 25|25 March]]<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.6.</ref> (see ''[[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|Alexandrian Era]]''). He gave the following intervals:<br />
<br />
:"...from Adam to the flood 2242 years, thence to Abraham 1141 years, thence to the Exodus 430 years, thence to the passover of Joshua 41 years, thence to the passover of Hezekiah 864 years, thence to the passover of Josiah 114 years, thence to the passover of Ezra 107 years, and thence to the birth of Christ 563 years."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.5.</ref>.<br />
<br />
In his ''Commentary on Daniel'', one of his earlier writings, he proceeds to set out additional reasons for accepting the date of 5500 AM:<br />
:"First he quotes Exod. xxv. 10f. and pointing out that the length, breadth and height of the Ark of the Covenant amount in all to 5 1/2 cubits, says that these symbolize the 5,500 years from Adam at the end of which the Saviour was born. He then quotes from Jn. xix. 14 ' ''it was about the sixth hour'' ' and, understanding by that 5 1/2 hours, takes each hour to correspond to a thousand years of the world's life..."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
Around AD 202 Hippolytus held that the Lord was born in the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus<ref>It is likely that his reckoning is from B.C. 43, the year in which Octavian was declared consul by senate and people and recognized as the adopted son and heir of Caesar. Epiphanius, (''Haeres'') also puts the Lord's birth in the 42nd year of Augustus when Octavius Augustus xiii and Silanus were consuls; and they were consuls in 2 B.C.</ref> and that he was born in 5500AM. In his ''Commentary on Daniel'' he did not need to establish the precise year of the Lord's birth; he is not concerned about the day of the week, the month-date, or even the year; it was sufficient for his purpose to show that Christ was born in the days of Augustus in 5500 AM.<br />
<br />
==Accounts in Byzantine Authors==<br />
From Justinian's decree in AD 537 that all dates must include the Indiction, the unification of the theological date of creation (as yet unfinalized) with the administrative system of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction] cycles became commonly referred to amongst [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians Byzantine authors], to whom the indiction was the standard measurement of time.<br />
<br />
'''In Official Documents'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, in the year AD 691 we find the ''Creation Era'' in the Acts of the [[Quinisext Council]] (so‐called Synodos Quinisexta).<br />
<br />
We find the era also in the dating of the so called ''Letter of three Patriarchs'' to the emperor Theophilos (April, indiction 14, 6344 = 836 AD).<br />
<br />
By the tenth century the ''Byzantine Era'' is found in the ''Novellas'' of A.D. 947, 962, 964, and most surely of the year A.D. 988, all dated in this way, as well as the Act of patriarch Nicholaos II Chrysobergos in A.D. 987.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
'''John Skylitzes'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Skylitzes John Skylitzes'] (ca.1081-1118) major work is the ''Synopsis of Histories'', which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael IV in 1057; it continues the chronicle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor]. Quoting from him as an example of the common Byzantine dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that:<br />
<br />
:"In the '''year 6508''' [1000], '''in the thirteenth indiction''', the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountains,..."<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref><br />
<br />
'''Niketas Choniates'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates Niketas Choniates]] (ca. 1155–1215), sometimes called Acominatus, was a Byzantine Greek historian. His chief work is his ''History'', in twenty-one books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. Again, an example of the dating method can be seen as he refers to the fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade as follows:<br />
<br />
:"The [[Constantinople|queen of cities]] fell to the Latins on the twelfth day of the month of April of the '''seventh indiction in the year 6712''' ([[1204]])."<ref>Niketas Choniates. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984. p.338</ref><br />
<br />
'''Doukas'''<br />
<br />
The historian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas], writing circa AD 1460, makes a detailed account for the ''Creation Era''. Although unrefined in style, the history of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas] is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the closing years of the Byzantine empire. <br />
<br />
:"From Adam, the first man created by God, to Noah, at whose time the flood took place, there were ten generations. The first, which was from God, was that of Adam. The second, after 230 years, was that of Seth begotten of Adam. The third, 205 years after Seth, was that of Enos begotten of Seth. The fourth, 190 years after Enos, was that of Kainan begotten of Enos. The fifth, 170 years after Kainan, was that of Mahaleel begotten of Kainan. The sixth, 165 years after Mahaleel, was that of Jared begotten of Mahaleel. The seventh, 162 years after Jared, was that of Enoch begotten of Jared. The eighth, 165 years after Enoch, was that of Methuselah begotten of Enoch. The ninth, 167 years after Methuselah, was that of Lamech begotten of Methuselah. The tenth, 188 years after Lamech, was that of Noah. Noah was 600 years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. Thus 2242 years may be counted from Adam to the flood.<br />
<br />
:There are also ten generations from the flood to Abraham numbering 1121 years. Abraham was seventy-five years old when he moved to the land of Canaan from Mesopotamia, and having resided there twenty-five years he begat Isaac. Isaac begat two sons, Esau and Jacob. When Jacob was 130 years old he went to Egypt with his twelve sons and grandchildren, seventy-five in number. And Abraham with his offspring dwelt in the land of Canaan 433 years, and having multiplied they numbered twelve tribes; a multitude of 600,000 were reckoned from the twelve sons of Jacob whose names are as follows: Ruben, Symeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Dan, Joseph, and Benjamin.<br />
<br />
:The descendants of Levi were Moses and Aaron; the latter was the first of the priesthood while Moses was appointed to govern. In the eightieth year of his life he walked through the Red Sea and led his people out of Egypt. This Moses flourished in the time of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inachus Inachos] [son of Oceanus and King of Argos] who was the first [Greek] king to reign. Thus the Jews are more ancient than the Greeks.<br />
<br />
:Remaining in the wilderness forty years they were governed for twenty-five years by Joshua, son of Nun, and by the Judges for 454 years to the reign of Saul, the first king installed by them. During the first year of his reign the great David was born. Thus from Abraham to David fourteen generations are numbered for a total of 1024 years. From David to the deportation to Babylon [586 BC] there are fourteen generations totalling 609 years. From the Babylonian Captivity to [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] there are fourteen generations totalling 504 years.<br />
<br />
:By the sequence of Numbers we calculate the number of 5,500 years from the time of the first Adam to Christ."<ref>Doukas (ca.1460). ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. pp.57-58.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Comparative List of Dates of Creation==<br />
===Early Church Writers===<br />
* 5537 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245), Church historian.<br />
* 5529 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus] (AD 115-181), Bishop of Antioch.<br />
* '''5509 BC''' - '''Byzantine Creation Era''' or''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople."'' ''' (finalized in 7th c. AD).<br />
* 5507 BC - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'' (ca. AD 630), Byzantine universal chronicle of the world.<br />
* 5500 BC - [[Hippolytus of Rome]]. (ca. AD 234), Presbyter, writer, martyr.<br />
* '''5493 BC - Alexandrian Era''' (AD 412).<br />
* 5199 BC - [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea]], Bishop of Caesarea and Church historian (AD 324).<br />
===Other Estimates===<br />
* 5199 BC - Mentioned in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Roman Martyrology]''<ref>Roman Martyrology: Some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic Traditionalist Catholics] use the year 5199 BC, which is taken from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Catholic martyrologies], and referred to as the true date of Creation in the "''Mystical City of God''," a 17th-century mystical work written by Maria de Agreda concerning creation and the life of the Virgin Mary. This year was also used earlier by the church historian [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in 324. (V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. 1958. pp.24-25).</ref>, published by the authority of Pope Gregory XIII in 1584, later confirmed in 1630 under Pope Urban VIII.<br />
* 4963 BC - According to the Benedictine Chronology<ref>Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine]. ''Art of Verifying Dates''. 4to, [[1750]]. Printed again in folio in [[1770]].<br />
:Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine] was a Benedictine monk, born at Gourieux, in the diocese of Liege, in 1688. He died in 1746. In France the Benedictine Maurist Order presided over the publication of a remarkable series of source collections for both ecclesiastical and secular history, and sponsored the major studies of documentation and chronology of the period. (John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887. p.235.)<br><br />
:Chronology was made a new science by this order of scholars. The ''"[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Art_de_v%C3%A9rifier_les_dates Art de vérifer les dates]"'', by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Dantine] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cl%C3%A9mencet Charles Clémencet], is regarded as the chief monument of French learning in the eighteenth century. (Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p.171.)</ref>, the Creation of Adam is given this date (AD [[1750]]).<br />
* 4004 BC<ref>Anglican and Protestant: In the English-speaking world, one of the most well known estimates in modern times is that of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] (1581–1656), who proposed a date of Sunday, [[October 23]], 4004 BC, in the Julian calendar. He placed the beginning of this first day of creation, and hence the exact time of creation, at the previous nightfall. (See the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher chronology]). When Queen Victoria came to the English throne in AD 1837, 4004 B.C. was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of the world. (Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology]).</ref> - Anglican Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher]] (AD 1650).<br />
* 3952 BC - Venerable [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bede Bede] (ca. AD 725), English Benedictine monk.<br />
* 3761 BC<ref>In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Jewish calendar was reformed. F. Rühl has shown that the adoption of this era must have taken place between the year 222, when Julius Africanus reports that the Jews still retained the eight-year lunar cycle (which is referred to in the pseudepigraphal ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Book_of_Enoch Book of Enoch]'' (74:13-16); see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch Calendar]), and 276, when Anatolius makes use of the nineteen year [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] to determine Easter after the manner of the Jews. It may be further conjectured that it was introduced about the year 240-241, the first year of the fifth thousand, according to this calculation, and that the tradition which associated its determination with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_of_Nehardea Mar Samuel] (d. about 250) is justified. (F. Rühl. ''Der Ursprung der Jüdischen Weltära, in Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft''. 1898. pp. 185,202.)</ref><ref>According to the popular tradition, the epoch that Hebrew calendar currently uses, the '''Hillel World Era''', beginning [[October 7]], 3761 BC, is traditionally regarded as having been calculated by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_II Hillel II] in the 4th century AD (ca. 358 AD), but did not become universal practice until the end of the Middle Ages. Scholars of this subject however believe that the evolution of the Hebrew calendar into its present form was actually a gradual process spanning several centuries from the first to about the eighth or ninth century AD.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] [Judaism] - (ca. AD 222-276); or, (ca. AD 358 - ''Hillel World Era'').<br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
* According to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]: <br />
:Regarding questions about the scientific accuracy of the Genesis account of creation, and about various viewpoints concerning evolution, '''the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] has not dogmatized any particular view'''. What is dogmatically proclaimed is that the One Triune God created everything that exists, and that man was created in a unique way and is alone made ''in the image and likeness of God'' (Gn 1:26,27).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref><br />
:The opening words of the [[Nicene Creed]], the central doctrinal statement of Christianity, affirms that the One True God is the source of everything that exists, both physical and spiritual, both animate and inanimate: ''"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible."'' In addition, our regeneration in Christ and the resurrection of the dead are both often called the '''"New Creation"''' (2 Cor 5:17; Rev 21:1).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.1778.</ref><br />
<br />
* According to Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley Harakas], the Bible's description of creation is not a "scientific account". It is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of the origins of mankind, though important, is really quite secondary in significance to the Church's message. The central image of Adam as God's image and likeness, who also represents fallen and sinful humanity, and the new Adam, [[Jesus Christ]], who is the "beginning", the first-born of the dead (Colossians 1:18) and the "first-fruits" of those who were dead, and are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20-23), is what is really important.<ref>Fr. Stanley S. Harakas. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988. pp.88,91.</ref> <br />
<br />
* Professor Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]), a nineteenth century historian, observed that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Biblical Chronologies] are uncertain due to discrepancies in the figures in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Genesis] and other methodological factors, accounting for hundreds of different chronologies being assigned by historians. In the case of the Fathers of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, who assigned 5509 B.C. as the date of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis creation of man], he writes that it was in response to the emperor's wishes to fix an era or convenient starting point for historical computation. Therefore it was a decision of mere historical convenience, not respecting either faith or morals.<ref>Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.</ref><br />
<br />
* It may also be noted historically that while Byzantine officials and chroniclers were disconcerted by the ambiguities among the different dating and recording systems in the earlier centuries, these mattered little to most people who marked time by the orderly progression of agricultual seasons and church festivals, and by the regularity of holidays, weather cycles, and years that revealed the Divine order (''Taxis'') underlying the world.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.8</ref><br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, Christians began at an early period to adopt the Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world.<ref>Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_the_Creation_of_the_World Chronology - Era of the Creation of the World].</ref><br />
<br />
Currently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the Biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of Genesis. The older dates of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] in the ''Byzantine Creation Era'' and in its precursor, the ''Alexandrian Era'', are based on the Greek [[Septuagint]]. The later dates of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] and the Hebrew Calendar are based on the Hebrew Masoretic text. <br />
<br />
The Fathers were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Old Testament chronology,<ref>Note that according to Dr. Wacholder, [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Josephus Josephus'] chronology for the antediluvian period (pre-flood) conforms with the LXX ([[Septuagint]]), but for the Noachites (post-flood) he used the Hebrew text. He chose this method to resolve the problem of the two chronological systems.</ref> and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.602-603.</ref><br />
<br />
To this day, traditional Orthodox Christians will use the Byzantine calculation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etos_Kosmou Etos Kosmou] in conjunction with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Anno Domini] (AD) year. Both dates appear on Orthodox cornerstones, ecclesiastical calendars and formal documents. The ecclesiastical new year is still observed on [[September 1]] (or on the Gregorian Calendar's [[September 14]] for those churches which follow the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]). September [[2008]] marked the beginning of the year 7517 of this era.<br />
<br />
==Appendix 1: Orthodox Observation of Time==<br />
'''Hours of the Liturgical Day'''<br><br />
In the Byzantine period the day was divided into two 12-hour cycles fixed by the rising and setting of the sun.<br />
:"Following Roman custom, the Byzantines began their calendrical day (''nychthemeron'') at midnight with the first hour of day (''hemera'') coming at dawn. The third hour marked midmorning, the sixth hour noon, and the ninth hour midafternoon. Evening (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Vespers hespera]]'') began at the 11th hour, and with sunset came the first hour of night (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Compline apodeipnon]]''). The interval between sunset and sunrise (''[[nyx]]'') was similarly divided into 12 hours as well as the traditional "watches" (''vigiliae'') of Roman times."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3</ref><br />
'''Days of the Liturgical Week'''<br><br />
Dr. Marcus Rautman points out that the seven-day week was known throughout the ancient world. The Roman Calendar had assigned one of the planetary deities to each day of the week. The Byzantines naturally avoided using these Latin names with their pagan echoes. They began their week with the "[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Lord%27s_Day Lord's Day]" (Kyriake), followed by an orderly succession of numbered days (Deutera, Trite, Tetarte, and Pempte), a day of "preparation" (Paraskeve), and finally Sabatton.<br />
:"Each day was devoted to remembering one or more martyrs or saints, whose observed feast days gradually eclipsed traditional festivals. Kyriake was seen as both the first and eighth day of the week, in the same way that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] was the alpha and omega of the cosmos, existing both before and after time. The second day of the week recognized angels, "the secondary luminaries as the first reflections of the primal outpouring of light," just as the sun and the moon had been observed during the Roman week. [[Saint John the Baptist|John the Baptist]], the forerunner (Prodromos) of Christ, was honored on the third day. Both the second and third days were viewed as occasions for penitence. The fourth and sixth days were dedicated to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Cross Cross] with holy songs sung in remembrance of the Crucifixion. The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] was honored on the fifth day of the week, while the seventh day was set aside for the martyrs of the church."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.5</ref><br />
<br />
==Appendix 2: Key Dates according to the Byzantine Era==<br />
* 1 AM (5509 BC) - [ Creation of the world].<br />
* 4755 AM (753 BC) - Rome was founded.<br />
* 4841 AM (667 BC) - City of [[Byzantium]] was founded.<br />
* ca. 5504 AM (4 BC) - Jesus of Nazareth was born.<br />
* ca. 5538 AM (AD 30) - Jesus Christ's crucifixion and resurrection.<br />
* 5838 AM (AD [[330]]) - [[Constantinople]] becomes the new capital of the Roman Empire.<br />
* 5888 AM (AD [[380]]) - Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire by decree of [[Theodosius I]].<br />
* 5903 AM (AD [[395]]) - Death of [[Theodosius I]] divides the Roman Empire into East and West.<br />
* 6045 AM (AD [[537]]) - [[Justinian I]] decrees that the indiction must be included when designating a Byzantine year. <br />
* 6118 AM (AD [[610]]) - [[Eastern Roman Empire]] changed its official language from Latin to [[Greek language|Greek]].<br />
* 6200 AM (AD 692) - Quinisext Council; first known official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' for dating.<br />
* 6496 AM (AD 988) - Official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' by Basil II; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27 Conversion of the Rus], ''Byzantine Era'' adopted in Russia.<br />
* 6562 AM (AD [[1054]]) - [[Great Schism]] occurs between the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
* 6712 AM (AD [[1204]]) - Sack of Constantinople by soldiers of the [[Fourth Crusade]]; Latin Empire of Constantinople was established.<br />
* 6769 AM (AD [[1261]]) - Byzantine Empire is re-established; [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Double-headed_eagle Double-headed eagle] is adopted as the official flag of the Byzantine Empire by Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.<ref>Josh Fruhlinger. [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_byz.html Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Imperial Flag]. '''Flags of the World''', 27 January, 1999.</ref>.<br />
* 6961 AM (AD [[1453]]) - [[Fall of Constantinople]]. The final collapse of the Byzantine Empire. The civilization of Rome (in its most inclusive sense including both Ancient Rome and New Rome ([[Constantinople]])) lasted a total of 2,206 years.<br />
* 7000 AM (AD 1492) - Millennialist movements in Moscow due to the end of the church calendar.<br />
* 7427-7430 AM (AD [[1919]]-[[1922]]) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919-1922) Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922].<br />
* 7518 AM = ([[September 1]], [[2009]] - [[August 31]], 2010).<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
===Wikipedia===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Anno Mundi].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Book of Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_era Calendar era].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Chronology of the Bible].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_Creation Dating Creation].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo Ex nihilo].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameron Hexameron].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar Julian calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar Lunisolar calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint Septuagint].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism Young Earth creationism].<br />
'''Principal Considerations for the Byzantine Calendar'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation according to Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle_(calendar) Solar cycle (calendar)] (28-year solar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] (19 year lunar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiction Indiction] (15 year indiction cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computus Easter Computus].<br />
'''Other Judeo-Christian Eras'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_calendar Coptic Calendar]. (Note that the '''"''Alexandrian Era''"''' (March 25, 5493 BC), is distinct from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", which is derived from the ancient [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian Calendar] and based on the ''' ''Era of the Martyrs'' '''(August 29, 284)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_calendar Ethiopian Calendar]. (Derived from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", and based on the ''' ''Incarnation Era'' ''' (August 29, AD 8)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar#Epoch_year Hebrew calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher_chronology].<br />
===Other External Links===<br />
'''In Greek'''<br />
* [http://el.orthodoxwiki.org/%CE%88%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85 Έτος Κόσμου].<br />
'''OrthodoxWiki'''<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Septuagint Septuagint]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Genesis Genesis]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Evolution Evolution]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gaussian_Formulae Gaussian Formulae]<br />
'''Hebrew Calendar'''<br />
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=438&letter=E#1154 The Era of the Creation] at Jewish Encyclopedia. <br />
* [http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Fact-Archive.com<br />
* [http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Absolute Astronomy.<br />
* [http://www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar] by Karl Hagen (medievalist).<br />
'''Other'''<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Labyrinth/2398/bginfo/trade/time.html Byzantine ways of reckoning time]<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_Constantinople Era of Constantinople] at Classic Encyclopedia (''Based on the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911'').<br />
* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. Charles Ellis, University of Bristol. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.smso.net/Calendar_era#Christian_era Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era] at SMSO Encyclopedia (''Saudi Medical Site Online'').<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In, '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/chronology.html Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs].<br />
* Dr. Stephen C. Meyers. [http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodusdate.htm Biblical Archaeology: The Date of the Exodus According to Ancient Writers]. Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies (IBSS). Updated April 30, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Young_earth_creationism Young earth creationism] at CreationWiki.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Theory_of_evolution Theory of evolution] at CreationWiki.<br />
<br />
==Bibliography and Further Reading==<br />
===Primary Sources===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas]. ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. (Vol.1 - Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates]. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.<br />
* St. [[Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''Volume VIII - Basil: Letters and Select Works'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.<br />
* St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV.<br />
* ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated. <br> <br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes]. ''The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813''. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).<br />
<br />
===Secondary Sources===<br />
* Anthony Bryer. ''“Chronology and Dating”''. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pnkxofhi4mQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies].''' Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31-37.<br />
* Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology] at Classic Encyclopedia (''based on the 11th ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica, pub.1911'').<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451–481.<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography''. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.<br />
* Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC&printsec=frontcover Chronology of the Old Testament]''. Master Books, AZ, 1993. Repr. 2005. ''(supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).''<br />
* E.G. Richards. ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History''. Oxford University Press, 1998. <br />
* Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. <br />
* Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000.<br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley S. Harakas]. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.<br />
* Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.<br />
* George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp.2–18.<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <br />
* Jack Finegan. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible''. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. <br />
* K.A. Worp. ''[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/9250/1/5_039_134.pdf Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents]''. 1985. University of Amsterdam.<br />
* Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.<br />
* Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.<br />
* Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006.<br />
* Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). ''[http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]''. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3–8.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PVCUZ7BTD2gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enoch+74%22+AND+%22cycle%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity]''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (''Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission'').<br />
* Prof. Dr. William Adler. ''Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus''. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. <br />
* Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''"Era."'' '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]'''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].<br />
* Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. ''The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt''. Zutphen, 1978. <br />
* ''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. <br />
* V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.<br />
* Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.<br />
* Yiannis E. Meimaris. ''Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia''. Athens, 1992.<br />
'''19th Century and Earlier'''<br />
* John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887.<br />
* Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Pozna%C5%84ski Samuel Poznański]. ''Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar.'' in '''The Jewish Quarterly Review''', Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), pp. 152–161.<br />
* Sir [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Browne Thomas Browne]. ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo61.html Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 - Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical]''. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. pp. 321-330.<br />
* ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.<br />
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''This article incorporates text from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Byzantine_Creation_Era Byzantine Creation Era] at [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki] under the terms of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Free Documentation License].'' <br />
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[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]<br />
[[Category:Timelines]]<br />
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<div>The '''Byzantine Creation Era''', also ''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople,"'' ''' or ''' ''"Era of the World"'' ''' (Greek: ''' ''Έτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατά 'Ρωμαίους'' ''',<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''How Old is The World? The Byzantine Era and its Rivals''. Institute for World History, Moscow, Russia. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, Fiona K. Haarer, Judith Gilliland. '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=YWec0i621ekC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21-26 August, 2006: Vol. 3, Abstracts of Communications].''' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. pp. 23-24.</ref> also ''' ''Έτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου'' ''' or ''' ''Έτος Κόσμου'' ''') was the Calendar officially used by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] from ca. AD 691 to 1728 in the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], and from ca. AD 988 to 1700 in [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Russia Holy Russia], and by the [[Byzantine Empire]]<ref>i.e. '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. The term Byzantine was invented by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1557 but was popularized by French scholars during the 18th century to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. The citizens of the empire considered themselves ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), their emperor was the "Roman Emperor", and their empire the ''Basileia ton Romaion'' ("Empire of the Romans"). The Latin West designated the empire as "Romania", and the Muslims as "Rum".</ref> from AD 988 to 1453. Its year one, the date of creation, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC.<br />
<br />
Derived from the [[Septuagint]], it placed the date of creation at 5,509 years before the Incarnation, and was characterized by a certain tendency which had already been a tradition amongst Hebrews and Jews to number the years ''from the foundation of the world'' (Greek - ''‘Etos Kosmou/Apo Kataboles Kosmou’'',<ref>The phrase ''"Apo Kataboles Kosmou"'' (''"from the foundation of the world"'') occurs in Matthew 25:34, Luke 11:50, Hebrews 4:3, 9:26, and Revelation 13:8, 17:8.</ref> or Latin - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Annus Mundi]/‘Ab Origine Mundi’'' ('''AM''')).<br />
<br />
We do not know who invented this era and when, however it appears for the first time in the treatise of a certain “monk and priest”, Georgios (AD 638-39), who mentions all the main variants of the ''"World Era"'' (''Ére Mondiale'') in his work.<ref>Fr. Diekamp, ''“Der Mönch und Presbyter Georgios, ein unbekannter Schriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts,”'' BZ 9 (1900) 14–51.</ref><ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.3.</ref>. Georgios makes it clear that the main advantage of the Byzantine era is the common starting point of the astronomical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar lunar and solar cycles], and of the cycle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indictions], the usual dating system in Byzantium since the sixth century. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus. Complex calculations of the 19-year lunar and 28-year solar cycles within this world era allowed scholars to discover the cosmic significance of certain historical dates, such as the birth of Christ or the Crucifixion.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Daily+Life+in+the+Byzantine+Empire ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.7</ref> <br />
<br />
This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the seventh century A.D., although its precursors were developed circa AD 412 (see [[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|''Alexandrian Era'']]). By the second half of the 7th century the ''Creation Era'' was known in the far West of Europe, in Britain.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4. (PL XC, 598, 877 (Pseudo‐Beda)).</ref> By the late tenth century around AD 988, when the era appears in use on offical government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world.<br />
<br />
The era was ultimately calculated as starting on [[September 1|September 1st]], and Jesus Christ was thought to have been born in the year 5509 ''Annus Mundi'' (AM) - the year since the creation of the world.<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref>. Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christ's birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'' since the date of Christ's birth was debated in Constantinople as late as the fourteenth century. Otherwise the ''Creation Era'' was identical to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]] except that: <br />
:*the names of the months were transcribed from Latin into Greek, <br />
:*the first day of the year was [[September 1]],<ref>About the year 462 the Byzantine [http://orthodoxwiki.org/IndictionIndiction] was moved from [[September 23]] to [[September 1]], where it remained throughout the rest of the Byzantine Empire, representing the present day beginning of the Church year. In 537 Justinian decreed that all dates must include the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indiction], so it was officially adopted as one way to identify a Byzantine year, becoming compulsory.</ref> so that both the Ecclesiatical and Civil calendar years ran from [[September 1|1 September]] to [[August 31|31 August]], (see [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]), which to the present day is the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church year]], and,<br />
:*the date of creation, '''its year one, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC'''.<br />
<br />
It is referred to indirectly in '''Canon III''' of the '''[[Quinisext Council]]''', which the Orthodox Churches consider as ecumenical, its canons being added to the decrees of the [[Second Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] and [[Third Council of Constantinople|Sixth]] Councils, as follows:<br />
:"... as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, ''in the last fourth [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]'', '''in the year six thousand one hundred and ninety [6190]''', ..."<ref>''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated.<br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983).</ref><br />
<br />
The ''Creation Era'' was gradually replaced in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] by the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'', which was utilized initially by Patriarch [[Theophanes I of Constantinople|Theophanes I Karykes]] in 1597, afterwards by Patriarch [[Cyril Lucaris]] in 1626, and then formally established by the Church in 1728.<ref>"Οικουμενικόν Πατριαρχείον", ΘHE, τόμ. 09, εκδ. Μαρτίνος Αθ., Αθήνα 1966, στ. 778.<br>(''"Ecumenical Patriarchate"''. '''Religious and Ethical Encyclopedia.''' Vol. 9., Athens, 1966. p.778.)</ref> Meanwhile as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the ''Creation Era'' (translated into Slavonic). After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the ''Creation Era'' continued to be used by Russia, which witnessed millennialist movements in Moscow in AD 1492 (7000 AM) due to the end of the church calendar. It was only in 1700 that the ''Creation Era'' in Russia was changed to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar] by Peter the Great.<ref>Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. ''The Literary Encyclopedia''. 25 September, 2008.</ref>. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today. September AD 2000 began the year 7509 AM.<ref>To convert our era to the Byzantine era, add 5509 years from September to December, and 5508 years from January to August.</ref><br />
<br />
==Important Early Calendars==<br />
During the period of Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean world there were three highly accredited calendars, namely: <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_calendar Babylonian], descendant of the Sumerian calendar, and basic contributor to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Biblical calendar]; <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian], in use since at least 2550 BC, which institutionalized a year that was 365 days long, being divided into 12 months of 30 days each; and <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiad#Era Greek] (''Era of the Olympiads''). <br />
Pliny the Elder, the Great Roman erudite scholar, attempted<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.</ref> to promote the Roman calendar as modified by Julius Caesar (i.e. the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]]) at the same level, as a ‘fourth calendar’.<ref>Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Earliest Christian Sources on the Age of the World==<br />
The earliest extant Christian writings on the age of the world according to the Biblical chronology are by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus]] (AD 115-181), the sixth bishop of Antioch from the Apostles, in his apologetic work ''To Autolycus'',<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).</ref> and by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245) in his ''Five Books of Chronology'' <ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''</ref>. Both of these early Christian writers, following the [[Septuagint]] version of the Old Testament, determined the age of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From a scholarly point of view Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] on this subject are of vital significance (''even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the [[Septuagint]], as compared to that of the Hebrew text''), in that through the Christian chronographers a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers<ref>Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275-194 B.C.) represented contemporary Alexandrian scholarship; Eupolemus, a Palestinian Jew and a friend of Judah Maccabee, writing in 158 B.C., is said to have been the first historian who synchronized Greek history in accordance with the theory of the Mosaic origin of culture. By the time of the first century B.C., a world chronicle had synchronized Jewish and Greek history and had gained international circulation: Alexander Polyhistor (flourishing in 85-35 B.C.); Varro (116-27 B.C.); Ptolemy of Mendes (50 B.C.); Apion (first century A.D.); Thrasyllus (before A.D. 36); and Thallus (first century A.D.) - all cited chronicles which had incorporated the dates of the Noachite flood and the exodus.</ref> is preserved:<br />
<br />
:An immense intellectual effort was expended during the Hellenistic period by both Jews and pagans to date creation, the flood, exodus, building of the Temple... In the course of their studies, men such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatian Tatian of Antioch]] (flourished in 180), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Clement_of_Alexandria Clement of Alexandria] (died before 215), [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (died in 235), [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]] of Jerusalem (died after 240), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in Palestine (260-340), and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers of the Hellenistic period, thereby allowing discernment of more distant scholarship.<ref>Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451-452.</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Hellenistic Jewish writer Demetrius (flourishing 221-204 B.C.) wrote ''On the Kings of Judea'' which dealt with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology; he computed the date of the flood and the birth of Abraham exactly as in the [[Septuagint]], and first established the '' '''Annus Adami''' - Era of Adam'', the antecedent of the Hebrew ''World Era'', and of the Alexandrian and Byzantine ''Creation Eras''.<br />
<br />
===Alexandrian Era===<br />
The ''' ''"Alexandrian Era"'' ''' (Greek: '' '''Κόσμου ετη κατ’ Αλεξανδρεις''' '' developed AD 412, was the precursor to the ''Byzantine Creation Era''. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others<ref>The ''' ''Era of Antioch'' ''' (5492 BC) and ''' ''Era of Alexandria'' ''' (5502 BC) were originally two different formations, differing by 10 years. They were both much in use by the early Christian writers attached to the Churches of Alexandria and Antioch. However after the year AD 284 the two eras coincided, settling on 5492 BC. (''"Epoch: Era of Antioch and Era of Alexandra."'' In: ''' ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' '''(Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841. p.73.)</ref>, the Alexandrian computation of the date of creation was worked out to be [[March 25|25 March]] 5493 BC.<ref>Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. p.73.</ref>. <br />
<br />
The Alexandrine monk Panodoros reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD 412. His years began with [[August 29]], corresponding to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thout First of Thoth], or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian]] new year.<ref>Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].</ref> Bishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annianus_of_Alexandria Annianos of Alexandria]] however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, the 25th of March, and shifted the Panodoros era by about six months, to begin on 25 March 5492 BC. This created the ''Alexandrian Era'', whose first day was the first day of the proleptic<ref>A calendar obtained by extension earlier in time than its invention or implementation is called the "proleptic" version of the calendar</ref> Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August, 5493 BC, with the ecclesiatical year beginning on 25 March, 5493 BC. <br />
<br />
:This system presents in a masterly sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the world's history: the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation, and the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ. All these events happened, according to the Alexandrian chronology, on the 25th of March; furthermore, the first two events were separated by the period of exactly 5500 years; the first and the third one occurred on Sunday — the sacred day of the beginning of the Creation and its renovation through Christ.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
Pope [[Dionysius of Alexandria]] had earlier emphatically quoted mystical justifications for the choice of March 25th as the start of the year:<br />
:[[March 25]] was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itself. It was the first day of the year in the medieval [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_calendar Julian calendar] and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian calendar was originally designed). Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned [[March 25]] into the Feast of the [[Annunciation]] which had to be followed, nine months later, by the celebration of the [[Nativity|birth of Christ]], Christmas, on [[December 25]].<br />
<br />
The ''Alexandrian Era'' of [[March 25]] 5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_the_Confessor Maximus the Confessor] and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor], as well as chroniclers such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Syncellus]. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles. However this masterpiece of Christian symbolism had two serious weak points: historical inaccuracy surrounding the date of [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] as determined by its [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus,<ref>In the commonly used 19‐year [[Holy Easter|Easter]] moon cycle, there was no year when the Passover (the first spring full moon, Nisan 14) would coincide with Friday and the traditional date of the Passion, [[March 25]]; according to Alexandrian system the date would have to have been Anno Mundi 5533 = 42(!)AD.</ref> and its contradiction to the chronology of the Gospel of [[Apostle John|St John]] regarding the date of the [[Crucifixion]] on Friday after the Passover.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
===Chronicon Paschale===<br />
A new variant of the ''World Era'' was suggested in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'', a valuable Byzantine universal chronicle of the world, composed about the year 630 AD by some representative of the Antiochian scholarly tradition.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref> It had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year A.D. 627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible and begins with [[March 21|21 March]], 5507.<br />
<br />
For its influence on Greek Christian chronology, and also because of its wide scope, the ''"Chronicon Paschale"'' takes its place beside [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius], and the chronicle of the monk [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus Georgius Syncellus]<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref> which was so important in the Middle Ages; but in respect of form it is inferior to these works.<ref>Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.</ref><br />
<br />
By the late tenth century the ''Byzantine Creation Era'', which had become fixed at [[September 1]] 5509 BC since at least the seventh century (differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian date, and 2 years from the ''Chronicon Paschale''), had become the widely accepted calendar of choice ''par excellence'' for Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.<br />
<br />
==Literal Creation Days==<br />
Even the most mystical Fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian] accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that ''the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC''. As Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose] points out:<br />
:"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology of the Old Testament, '''from Adam onwards''', is to be accepted "literally." They did not have the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological ''precision'', but even the most mystical Fathers ([http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian]], St. [[Gregory Palamas]], etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between the creation and the Birth of Christ."<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.539-540.</ref><br />
<br />
The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] also consistently affirm that each species of the animate creation came into existence instantaneously, at the command of God, with its seed within itself.<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref> [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]] for example takes this literal view in the ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron],'' a work consisitng of nine homilies delivered by St. Basil on the cosmogony of the opening chapters of Genesis, providing one of the most detailed expositions of the six days of creation to come down to us from the early church. Basil writes in Homily I that:<br />
:"Thus then, if it is said, “''In the beginning God created,''” it is to teach us that at the will of God the world arose in less than an instant,..."<ref>St. [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.ii.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''VOLUME VIII - BASIL: LETTERS AND SELECT WORKS'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.</ref><br />
<br />
Typical of the Christian conviction on this point, St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers] also affirms that the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation] was performed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo ex nihilo]: <br />
:"For all things, as the Prophet says, were made out of nothing; it was no transformation of existing things, but the creation of the non-being into a perfect form".<ref>St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV, 16.</ref><br />
The prophet cited by St.Hilary was the mother of the Maccabean martyrs, who said to one of her tortured sons, ''"I beseech you, my child, to look at heaven and earth and see everything in them, and know that God made them out of nothing; so also He made the race of man in this way"''<ref>''The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]'' ([Septuagint]). St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.653.</ref> (2 Maccabees 7:28).<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] 7:28), p.34.</ref> This text from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] was the standard biblical proof text for the Christian Church in respect to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo creation from nothingness]. We find the thesis in late Judaism, from which it passed into the Christian faith as an essential teaching.<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. pp.34-35.</ref><br />
<br />
In addition, the traditional Jewish understanding of the creation "days" of Genesis is that they are literal as well, as virtually all the Rabbis have understood in commentaries from Talmudic, Midrashic and Rabbinic sources.<ref>Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. Vol.1 (Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988. ISBN 9780932232076</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Accounts in Church Fathers==<br />
'''St. John Chrysostom'''<br />
<br />
St. [[John Chrysostom]] says clearly in his Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''", that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years."<ref>St. John Chrysostom. Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''" 1:2.</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Isaac the Syrian'''<br />
<br />
St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria Isaac the Syrian] writes in a Homily that before [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"for five thousand years five hundred and some years God left Adam (i.e. man) to labor on the earth."<ref>St. Isaac the Syrian. Homily 19, Russian edition, pp. 85 [Homily 29, English edition, p.143].</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Augustine'''<br />
<br />
[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Augustine_of_Hippo Blessed Augustine] writes in the ''City of God'' (written AD 413-426):<br />
: "Let us omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race...They are deceived by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousands of years, though reckoning by the sacred writings we find that not 6,000 years have passed. (''City of God'' 12:10)<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.236.</ref>.<br />
Augustine goes on to say that the ancient Greek chronology "does not exceed the true account of the duration of the world as it is given in our documents [i.e. the Scriptures], which are truly sacred."<br />
<br />
'''St. Hippolytus'''<br />
<br />
St. [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (ca.170-235) maintained on Scriptural grounds that the Lord's birth took place in 5500 AM, and held that the birth of Christ took place on a passover day, deducing that its month-date was [[March 25|25 March]]<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.6.</ref> (see ''[[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|Alexandrian Era]]''). He gave the following intervals:<br />
<br />
:"...from Adam to the flood 2242 years, thence to Abraham 1141 years, thence to the Exodus 430 years, thence to the passover of Joshua 41 years, thence to the passover of Hezekiah 864 years, thence to the passover of Josiah 114 years, thence to the passover of Ezra 107 years, and thence to the birth of Christ 563 years."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.5.</ref>.<br />
<br />
In his ''Commentary on Daniel'', one of his earlier writings, he proceeds to set out additional reasons for accepting the date of 5500 AM:<br />
:"First he quotes Exod. xxv. 10f. and pointing out that the length, breadth and height of the Ark of the Covenant amount in all to 5 1/2 cubits, says that these symbolize the 5,500 years from Adam at the end of which the Saviour was born. He then quotes from Jn. xix. 14 ' ''it was about the sixth hour'' ' and, understanding by that 5 1/2 hours, takes each hour to correspond to a thousand years of the world's life..."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
Around AD 202 Hippolytus held that the Lord was born in the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus<ref>It is likely that his reckoning is from B.C. 43, the year in which Octavian was declared consul by senate and people and recognized as the adopted son and heir of Caesar. Epiphanius, (''Haeres'') also puts the Lord's birth in the 42nd year of Augustus when Octavius Augustus xiii and Silanus were consuls; and they were consuls in 2 B.C.</ref> and that he was born in 5500AM. In his ''Commentary on Daniel'' he did not need to establish the precise year of the Lord's birth; he is not concerned about the day of the week, the month-date, or even the year; it was sufficient for his purpose to show that Christ was born in the days of Augustus in 5500 AM.<br />
<br />
==Accounts in Byzantine Authors==<br />
From Justinian's decree in AD 537 that all dates must include the Indiction, the unification of the theological date of creation (as yet unfinalized) with the administrative system of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction] cycles became commonly referred to amongst [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians Byzantine authors], to whom the indiction was the standard measurement of time.<br />
<br />
'''In Official Documents'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, in the year AD 691 we find the ''Creation Era'' in the Acts of the [[Quinisext Council]] (so‐called Synodos Quinisexta).<br />
<br />
We find the era also in the dating of the so called ''Letter of three Patriarchs'' to the emperor Theophilos (April, indiction 14, 6344 = 836 AD).<br />
<br />
By the tenth century the ''Byzantine Era'' is found in the ''Novellas'' of A.D. 947, 962, 964, and most surely of the year A.D. 988, all dated in this way, as well as the Act of patriarch Nicholaos II Chrysobergos in A.D. 987.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
'''John Skylitzes'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Skylitzes John Skylitzes'] (ca.1081-1118) major work is the ''Synopsis of Histories'', which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael IV in 1057; it continues the chronicle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor]. Quoting from him as an example of the common Byzantine dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that:<br />
<br />
:"In the '''year 6508''' [1000], '''in the thirteenth indiction''', the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountains,..."<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref><br />
<br />
'''Niketas Choniates'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates Niketas Choniates]] (ca. 1155–1215), sometimes called Acominatus, was a Byzantine Greek historian. His chief work is his ''History'', in twenty-one books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. Again, an example of the dating method can be seen as he refers to the fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade as follows:<br />
<br />
:"The queen of cities fell to the Latins on the twelfth day of the month of April of the '''seventh indiction in the year 6712''' [1204]."<ref>Niketas Choniates. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984. p.338</ref><br />
<br />
'''Doukas'''<br />
<br />
The historian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas], writing circa AD 1460, makes a detailed account for the ''Creation Era''. Although unrefined in style, the history of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas] is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the closing years of the Byzantine empire. <br />
<br />
:"From Adam, the first man created by God, to Noah, at whose time the flood took place, there were ten generations. The first, which was from God, was that of Adam. The second, after 230 years, was that of Seth begotten of Adam. The third, 205 years after Seth, was that of Enos begotten of Seth. The fourth, 190 years after Enos, was that of Kainan begotten of Enos. The fifth, 170 years after Kainan, was that of Mahaleel begotten of Kainan. The sixth, 165 years after Mahaleel, was that of Jared begotten of Mahaleel. The seventh, 162 years after Jared, was that of Enoch begotten of Jared. The eighth, 165 years after Enoch, was that of Methuselah begotten of Enoch. The ninth, 167 years after Methuselah, was that of Lamech begotten of Methuselah. The tenth, 188 years after Lamech, was that of Noah. Noah was 600 years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. Thus 2242 years may be counted from Adam to the flood.<br />
<br />
:There are also ten generations from the flood to Abraham numbering 1121 years. Abraham was seventy-five years old when he moved to the land of Canaan from Mesopotamia, and having resided there twenty-five years he begat Isaac. Isaac begat two sons, Esau and Jacob. When Jacob was 130 years old he went to Egypt with his twelve sons and grandchildren, seventy-five in number. And Abraham with his offspring dwelt in the land of Canaan 433 years, and having multiplied they numbered twelve tribes; a multitude of 600,000 were reckoned from the twelve sons of Jacob whose names are as follows: Ruben, Symeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Dan, Joseph, and Benjamin.<br />
<br />
:The descendants of Levi were Moses and Aaron; the latter was the first of the priesthood while Moses was appointed to govern. In the eightieth year of his life he walked through the Red Sea and led his people out of Egypt. This Moses flourished in the time of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inachus Inachos] [son of Oceanus and King of Argos] who was the first [Greek] king to reign. Thus the Jews are more ancient than the Greeks.<br />
<br />
:Remaining in the wilderness forty years they were governed for twenty-five years by Joshua, son of Nun, and by the Judges for 454 years to the reign of Saul, the first king installed by them. During the first year of his reign the great David was born. Thus from Abraham to David fourteen generations are numbered for a total of 1024 years. From David to the deportation to Babylon [586 BC] there are fourteen generations totalling 609 years. From the Babylonian Captivity to [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] there are fourteen generations totalling 504 years.<br />
<br />
:By the sequence of Numbers we calculate the number of 5,500 years from the time of the first Adam to Christ."<ref>Doukas (ca.1460). ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. pp.57-58.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Comparative List of Dates of Creation==<br />
===Early Church Writers===<br />
* 5537 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245), Church historian.<br />
* 5529 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus] (AD 115-181), Bishop of Antioch.<br />
* '''5509 BC''' - '''Byzantine Creation Era''' or''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople."'' ''' (finalized in 7th c. AD).<br />
* 5507 BC - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'' (ca. AD 630), Byzantine universal chronicle of the world.<br />
* 5500 BC - [[Hippolytus of Rome]]. (ca. AD 234), Presbyter, writer, martyr.<br />
* '''5493 BC - Alexandrian Era''' (AD 412).<br />
* 5199 BC - [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea]], Bishop of Caesarea and Church historian (AD 324).<br />
===Other Estimates===<br />
* 5199 BC - Mentioned in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Roman Martyrology]''<ref>Roman Martyrology: Some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic Traditionalist Catholics] use the year 5199 BC, which is taken from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Catholic martyrologies], and referred to as the true date of Creation in the "''Mystical City of God''," a 17th-century mystical work written by Maria de Agreda concerning creation and the life of the Virgin Mary. This year was also used earlier by the church historian [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in 324. (V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. 1958. pp.24-25).</ref>, published by the authority of Pope Gregory XIII in 1584, later confirmed in 1630 under Pope Urban VIII.<br />
* 4963 BC - According to the Benedictine Chronology<ref>Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine]. ''Art of Verifying Dates''. 4to, 1750. Printed again in folio in 1770.<br />
:Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine] was a Benedictine monk, born at Gourieux, in the diocese of Liege, in 1688. He died in 1746. In France the Benedictine Maurist Order presided over the publication of a remarkable series of source collections for both ecclesiastical and secular history, and sponsored the major studies of documentation and chronology of the period. (John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887. p.235.)<br><br />
:Chronology was made a new science by this order of scholars. The ''"[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Art_de_v%C3%A9rifier_les_dates Art de vérifer les dates]"'', by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Dantine] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cl%C3%A9mencet Charles Clémencet], is regarded as the chief monument of French learning in the eighteenth century. (Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p.171.)</ref>, the Creation of Adam is given this date (AD 1750).<br />
* 4004 BC<ref>Anglican and Protestant: In the English-speaking world, one of the most well known estimates in modern times is that of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] (1581–1656), who proposed a date of Sunday, [[October 23]], 4004 BC, in the Julian calendar. He placed the beginning of this first day of creation, and hence the exact time of creation, at the previous nightfall. (See the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher chronology]). When Queen Victoria came to the English throne in AD 1837, 4004 B.C. was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of the world. (Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology]).</ref> - Anglican Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher]] (AD 1650).<br />
* 3952 BC - Venerable [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bede Bede] (ca. AD 725), English Benedictine monk.<br />
* 3761 BC<ref>In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Jewish calendar was reformed. F. Rühl has shown that the adoption of this era must have taken place between the year 222, when Julius Africanus reports that the Jews still retained the eight-year lunar cycle (which is referred to in the pseudepigraphal ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Book_of_Enoch Book of Enoch]'' (74:13-16); see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch Calendar]), and 276, when Anatolius makes use of the nineteen year [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] to determine Easter after the manner of the Jews. It may be further conjectured that it was introduced about the year 240-241, the first year of the fifth thousand, according to this calculation, and that the tradition which associated its determination with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_of_Nehardea Mar Samuel] (d. about 250) is justified. (F. Rühl. ''Der Ursprung der Jüdischen Weltära, in Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft''. 1898. pp. 185,202.)</ref><ref>According to the popular tradition, the epoch that Hebrew calendar currently uses, the '''Hillel World Era''', beginning [[October 7]], 3761 BC, is traditionally regarded as having been calculated by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_II Hillel II] in the 4th century AD (ca. 358 AD), but did not become universal practice until the end of the Middle Ages. Scholars of this subject however believe that the evolution of the Hebrew calendar into its present form was actually a gradual process spanning several centuries from the first to about the eighth or ninth century AD.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] [Judaism] - (ca. AD 222-276); or, (ca. AD 358 - ''Hillel World Era'').<br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
* According to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]: <br />
:Regarding questions about the scientific accuracy of the Genesis account of creation, and about various viewpoints concerning evolution, '''the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] has not dogmatized any particular view'''. What is dogmatically proclaimed is that the One Triune God created everything that exists, and that man was created in a unique way and is alone made ''in the image and likeness of God'' (Gn 1:26,27).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref><br />
:The opening words of the [[Nicene Creed]], the central doctrinal statement of Christianity, affirms that the One True God is the source of everything that exists, both physical and spiritual, both animate and inanimate: ''"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible."'' In addition, our regeneration in Christ and the resurrection of the dead are both often called the '''"New Creation"''' (2 Cor 5:17; Rev 21:1).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.1778.</ref><br />
<br />
* According to Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley Harakas], the Bible's description of creation is not a "scientific account". It is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of the origins of mankind, though important, is really quite secondary in significance to the Church's message. The central image of Adam as God's image and likeness, who also represents fallen and sinful humanity, and the new Adam, [[Jesus Christ]], who is the "beginning", the first-born of the dead (Colossians 1:18) and the "first-fruits" of those who were dead, and are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20-23), is what is really important.<ref>Fr. Stanley S. Harakas. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988. pp.88,91.</ref> <br />
<br />
* Professor Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]), a nineteenth century historian, observed that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Biblical Chronologies] are uncertain due to discrepancies in the figures in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Genesis] and other methodological factors, accounting for hundreds of different chronologies being assigned by historians. In the case of the Fathers of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, who assigned 5509 B.C. as the date of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis creation of man], he writes that it was in response to the emperor's wishes to fix an era or convenient starting point for historical computation. Therefore it was a decision of mere historical convenience, not respecting either faith or morals.<ref>Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.</ref><br />
<br />
* It may also be noted historically that while Byzantine officials and chroniclers were disconcerted by the ambiguities among the different dating and recording systems in the earlier centuries, these mattered little to most people who marked time by the orderly progression of agricultual seasons and church festivals, and by the regularity of holidays, weather cycles, and years that revealed the Divine order (''Taxis'') underlying the world.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.8</ref><br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, Christians began at an early period to adopt the Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world.<ref>Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_the_Creation_of_the_World Chronology - Era of the Creation of the World].</ref><br />
<br />
Currently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the Biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of Genesis. The older dates of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] in the ''Byzantine Creation Era'' and in its precursor, the ''Alexandrian Era'', are based on the Greek [[Septuagint]]. The later dates of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] and the Hebrew Calendar are based on the Hebrew Masoretic text. <br />
<br />
The Fathers were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Old Testament chronology,<ref>Note that according to Dr. Wacholder, [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Josephus Josephus'] chronology for the antediluvian period (pre-flood) conforms with the LXX ([[Septuagint]]), but for the Noachites (post-flood) he used the Hebrew text. He chose this method to resolve the problem of the two chronological systems.</ref> and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.602-603.</ref><br />
<br />
To this day, traditional Orthodox Christians will use the Byzantine calculation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etos_Kosmou Etos Kosmou] in conjunction with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Anno Domini] (AD) year. Both dates appear on Orthodox cornerstones, ecclesiastical calendars and formal documents. The ecclesiastical new year is still observed on [[September 1]] (or on the Gregorian Calendar's [[September 14]] for those churches which follow the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]). September 2008 marked the beginning of the year 7517 of this era.<br />
<br />
==Appendix 1: Orthodox Observation of Time==<br />
'''Hours of the Liturgical Day'''<br><br />
In the Byzantine period the day was divided into two 12-hour cycles fixed by the rising and setting of the sun.<br />
:"Following Roman custom, the Byzantines began their calendrical day (''nychthemeron'') at midnight with the first hour of day (''hemera'') coming at dawn. The third hour marked midmorning, the sixth hour noon, and the ninth hour midafternoon. Evening (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Vespers hespera]]'') began at the 11th hour, and with sunset came the first hour of night (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Compline apodeipnon]]''). The interval between sunset and sunrise (''nyx'') was similarly divided into 12 hours as well as the traditional "watches" (''vigiliae'') of Roman times."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3</ref><br />
'''Days of the Liturgical Week'''<br><br />
Dr. Marcus Rautman points out that the seven-day week was known throughout the ancient world. The Roman Calendar had assigned one of the planetary deities to each day of the week. The Byzantines naturally avoided using these Latin names with their pagan echoes. They began their week with the "[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Lord%27s_Day Lord's Day]" (Kyriake), followed by an orderly succession of numbered days (Deutera, Trite, Tetarte, and Pempte), a day of "preparation" (Paraskeve), and finally Sabatton.<br />
:"Each day was devoted to remembering one or more martyrs or saints, whose observed feast days gradually eclipsed traditional festivals. Kyriake was seen as both the first and eighth day of the week, in the same way that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] was the alpha and omega of the cosmos, existing both before and after time. The second day of the week recognized angels, "the secondary luminaries as the first reflections of the primal outpouring of light," just as the sun and the moon had been observed during the Roman week. [[Saint John the Baptist|John the Baptist]], the forerunner (Prodromos) of Christ, was honored on the third day. Both the second and third days were viewed as occasions for penitence. The fourth and sixth days were dedicated to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Cross Cross] with holy songs sung in remembrance of the Crucifixion. The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] was honored on the fifth day of the week, while the seventh day was set aside for the martyrs of the church."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.5</ref><br />
<br />
==Appendix 2: Key Dates according to the Byzantine Era==<br />
* 1 AM (5509 BC) - [ Creation of the world].<br />
* 4755 AM (753 BC) - Rome was founded.<br />
* 4841 AM (667 BC) - City of Byzantium was founded.<br />
* ca. 5504 AM (4 BC) - Jesus of Nazareth was born.<br />
* ca. 5538 AM (AD 30) - Jesus Christ's crucifixion and resurrection.<br />
* 5838 AM (AD 330) - [[Constantinople]] becomes the new capital of the Roman Empire.<br />
* 5888 AM (AD 380) - Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire by decree of [[Theodosius I]].<br />
* 5903 AM (AD 395) - Death of Theodosius I divides the Roman Empire into East and West.<br />
* 6045 AM (AD 537) - Justinian I decrees that the indiction must be included when designating a Byzantine year. <br />
* 6118 AM (AD 610) - Eastern Roman Empire changed its official language from Latin to Greek.<br />
* 6200 AM (AD 692) - Quinisext Council; first known official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' for dating.<br />
* 6496 AM (AD 988) - Official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' by Basil II; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27 Conversion of the Rus], ''Byzantine Era'' adopted in Russia.<br />
* 6562 AM (AD 1054) - [ Great Schism] occurs between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
* 6712 AM (AD 1204) - Sack of Constantinople by soldiers of the [[Fourth Crusade]]; Latin Empire of Constantinople was established.<br />
* 6769 AM (AD 1261) - Byzantine Empire is re-established; [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Double-headed_eagle Double-headed eagle] is adopted as the official flag of the Byzantine Empire by Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.<ref>Josh Fruhlinger. [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_byz.html Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Imperial Flag]. '''Flags of the World''', 27 January, 1999.</ref>.<br />
* 6961 AM (AD 1453) - [[Fall of Constantinople]] -- The final collapse of the Byzantine Empire. The civilization of Rome (in its most inclusive sense including both Ancient Rome and New Rome (Constantinople)) lasted a total of 2,206 years.<br />
* 7000 AM (AD 1492) - Millennialist movements in Moscow due to the end of the church calendar.<br />
* 7427-7430 AM (AD 1919-1922) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919-1922) Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922].<br />
* 7518 AM = (September 1, 2009 - August 31, 2010).<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
===Wikipedia===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Anno Mundi].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Book of Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_era Calendar era].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Chronology of the Bible].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_Creation Dating Creation].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo Ex nihilo].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameron Hexameron].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar Julian calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar Lunisolar calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint Septuagint].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism Young Earth creationism].<br />
'''Principal Considerations for the Byzantine Calendar'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation according to Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle_(calendar) Solar cycle (calendar)] (28-year solar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] (19 year lunar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiction Indiction] (15 year indiction cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computus Easter Computus].<br />
'''Other Judeo-Christian Eras'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_calendar Coptic Calendar]. (Note that the '''"''Alexandrian Era''"''' (March 25, 5493 BC), is distinct from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", which is derived from the ancient [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian Calendar] and based on the ''' ''Era of the Martyrs'' '''(August 29, 284)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_calendar Ethiopian Calendar]. (Derived from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", and based on the ''' ''Incarnation Era'' ''' (August 29, AD 8)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar#Epoch_year Hebrew calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher_chronology].<br />
===Other External Links===<br />
'''In Greek'''<br />
* [http://el.orthodoxwiki.org/%CE%88%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85 Έτος Κόσμου].<br />
'''OrthodoxWiki'''<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Septuagint Septuagint]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Genesis Genesis]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Evolution Evolution]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gaussian_Formulae Gaussian Formulae]<br />
'''Hebrew Calendar'''<br />
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=438&letter=E#1154 The Era of the Creation] at Jewish Encyclopedia. <br />
* [http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Fact-Archive.com<br />
* [http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Absolute Astronomy.<br />
* [http://www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar] by Karl Hagen (medievalist).<br />
'''Other'''<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Labyrinth/2398/bginfo/trade/time.html Byzantine ways of reckoning time]<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_Constantinople Era of Constantinople] at Classic Encyclopedia (''Based on the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911'').<br />
* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. Charles Ellis, University of Bristol. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.smso.net/Calendar_era#Christian_era Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era] at SMSO Encyclopedia (''Saudi Medical Site Online'').<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In, '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/chronology.html Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs].<br />
* Dr. Stephen C. Meyers. [http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodusdate.htm Biblical Archaeology: The Date of the Exodus According to Ancient Writers]. Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies (IBSS). Updated April 30, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Young_earth_creationism Young earth creationism] at CreationWiki.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Theory_of_evolution Theory of evolution] at CreationWiki.<br />
<br />
==Bibliography and Further Reading==<br />
===Primary Sources===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas]. ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. (Vol.1 - Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates]. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.<br />
* St. [[Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''Volume VIII - Basil: Letters and Select Works'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.<br />
* St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV.<br />
* ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated. <br> <br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes]. ''The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813''. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).<br />
<br />
===Secondary Sources===<br />
* Anthony Bryer. ''“Chronology and Dating”''. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pnkxofhi4mQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies].''' Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31-37.<br />
* Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology] at Classic Encyclopedia (''based on the 11th ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica, pub.1911'').<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451–481.<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography''. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.<br />
* Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC&printsec=frontcover Chronology of the Old Testament]''. Master Books, AZ, 1993. Repr. 2005. ''(supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).''<br />
* E.G. Richards. ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History''. Oxford University Press, 1998. <br />
* Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. <br />
* Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000.<br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley S. Harakas]. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.<br />
* Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.<br />
* George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp.2–18.<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <br />
* Jack Finegan. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible''. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. <br />
* K.A. Worp. ''[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/9250/1/5_039_134.pdf Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents]''. 1985. University of Amsterdam.<br />
* Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.<br />
* Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.<br />
* Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006.<br />
* Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). ''[http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]''. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3–8.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PVCUZ7BTD2gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enoch+74%22+AND+%22cycle%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity]''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (''Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission'').<br />
* Prof. Dr. William Adler. ''Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus''. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. <br />
* Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''"Era."'' '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]'''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].<br />
* Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. ''The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt''. Zutphen, 1978. <br />
* ''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. <br />
* V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.<br />
* Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.<br />
* Yiannis E. Meimaris. ''Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia''. Athens, 1992.<br />
'''19th Century and Earlier'''<br />
* John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887.<br />
* Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Pozna%C5%84ski Samuel Poznański]. ''Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar.'' in '''The Jewish Quarterly Review''', Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), pp. 152–161.<br />
* Sir [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Browne Thomas Browne]. ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo61.html Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 - Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical]''. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. pp. 321-330.<br />
* ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.<br />
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''This article incorporates text from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Byzantine_Creation_Era Byzantine Creation Era] at [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki] under the terms of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Free Documentation License].'' <br />
<br />
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]<br />
[[Category:Timelines]]<br />
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Byzantine_Creation_Era&diff=39337Byzantine Creation Era2009-07-09T22:32:26Z<p>Angellight 888: /* Appendix 1: Orthodox Observation of Time */</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Byzantine Creation Era''', also ''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople,"'' ''' or ''' ''"Era of the World"'' ''' (Greek: ''' ''Έτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατά 'Ρωμαίους'' ''',<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''How Old is The World? The Byzantine Era and its Rivals''. Institute for World History, Moscow, Russia. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, Fiona K. Haarer, Judith Gilliland. '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=YWec0i621ekC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21-26 August, 2006: Vol. 3, Abstracts of Communications].''' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. pp. 23-24.</ref> also ''' ''Έτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου'' ''' or ''' ''Έτος Κόσμου'' ''') was the Calendar officially used by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] from ca. AD 691 to 1728 in the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], and from ca. AD 988 to 1700 in [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Russia Holy Russia], and by the [[Byzantine Empire]]<ref>i.e. '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. The term Byzantine was invented by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1557 but was popularized by French scholars during the 18th century to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. The citizens of the empire considered themselves ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), their emperor was the "Roman Emperor", and their empire the ''Basileia ton Romaion'' ("Empire of the Romans"). The Latin West designated the empire as "Romania", and the Muslims as "Rum".</ref> from AD 988 to 1453. Its year one, the date of creation, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC.<br />
<br />
Derived from the [[Septuagint]], it placed the date of creation at 5,509 years before the Incarnation, and was characterized by a certain tendency which had already been a tradition amongst Hebrews and Jews to number the years ''from the foundation of the world'' (Greek - ''‘Etos Kosmou/Apo Kataboles Kosmou’'',<ref>The phrase ''"Apo Kataboles Kosmou"'' (''"from the foundation of the world"'') occurs in Matthew 25:34, Luke 11:50, Hebrews 4:3, 9:26, and Revelation 13:8, 17:8.</ref> or Latin - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Annus Mundi]/‘Ab Origine Mundi’'' ('''AM''')).<br />
<br />
We do not know who invented this era and when, however it appears for the first time in the treatise of a certain “monk and priest”, Georgios (AD 638-39), who mentions all the main variants of the ''"World Era"'' (''Ére Mondiale'') in his work.<ref>Fr. Diekamp, ''“Der Mönch und Presbyter Georgios, ein unbekannter Schriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts,”'' BZ 9 (1900) 14–51.</ref><ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.3.</ref>. Georgios makes it clear that the main advantage of the Byzantine era is the common starting point of the astronomical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar lunar and solar cycles], and of the cycle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indictions], the usual dating system in Byzantium since the sixth century. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus. Complex calculations of the 19-year lunar and 28-year solar cycles within this world era allowed scholars to discover the cosmic significance of certain historical dates, such as the birth of Christ or the Crucifixion.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Daily+Life+in+the+Byzantine+Empire ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.7</ref> <br />
<br />
This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the seventh century A.D., although its precursors were developed circa AD 412 (see [[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|''Alexandrian Era'']]). By the second half of the 7th century the ''Creation Era'' was known in the far West of Europe, in Britain.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4. (PL XC, 598, 877 (Pseudo‐Beda)).</ref> By the late tenth century around AD 988, when the era appears in use on offical government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world.<br />
<br />
The era was ultimately calculated as starting on [[September 1|September 1st]], and Jesus Christ was thought to have been born in the year 5509 ''Annus Mundi'' (AM) - the year since the creation of the world.<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref>. Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christ's birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'' since the date of Christ's birth was debated in Constantinople as late as the fourteenth century. Otherwise the ''Creation Era'' was identical to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]] except that: <br />
:*the names of the months were transcribed from Latin into Greek, <br />
:*the first day of the year was [[September 1]],<ref>About the year 462 the Byzantine [http://orthodoxwiki.org/IndictionIndiction] was moved from [[September 23]] to [[September 1]], where it remained throughout the rest of the Byzantine Empire, representing the present day beginning of the Church year. In 537 Justinian decreed that all dates must include the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indiction], so it was officially adopted as one way to identify a Byzantine year, becoming compulsory.</ref> so that both the Ecclesiatical and Civil calendar years ran from [[September 1|1 September]] to [[August 31|31 August]], (see [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]), which to the present day is the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church year]], and,<br />
:*the date of creation, '''its year one, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC'''.<br />
<br />
It is referred to indirectly in '''Canon III''' of the '''[[Quinisext Council]]''', which the Orthodox Churches consider as ecumenical, its canons being added to the decrees of the [[Second Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] and [[Third Council of Constantinople|Sixth]] Councils, as follows:<br />
:"... as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, ''in the last fourth [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]'', '''in the year six thousand one hundred and ninety [6190]''', ..."<ref>''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated.<br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983).</ref><br />
<br />
The ''Creation Era'' was gradually replaced in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] by the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'', which was utilized initially by Patriarch [[Theophanes I of Constantinople|Theophanes I Karykes]] in 1597, afterwards by Patriarch [[Cyril Lucaris]] in 1626, and then formally established by the Church in 1728.<ref>"Οικουμενικόν Πατριαρχείον", ΘHE, τόμ. 09, εκδ. Μαρτίνος Αθ., Αθήνα 1966, στ. 778.<br>(''"Ecumenical Patriarchate"''. '''Religious and Ethical Encyclopedia.''' Vol. 9., Athens, 1966. p.778.)</ref> Meanwhile as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the ''Creation Era'' (translated into Slavonic). After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the ''Creation Era'' continued to be used by Russia, which witnessed millennialist movements in Moscow in AD 1492 (7000 AM) due to the end of the church calendar. It was only in 1700 that the ''Creation Era'' in Russia was changed to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar] by Peter the Great.<ref>Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. ''The Literary Encyclopedia''. 25 September, 2008.</ref>. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today. September AD 2000 began the year 7509 AM.<ref>To convert our era to the Byzantine era, add 5509 years from September to December, and 5508 years from January to August.</ref><br />
<br />
==Important Early Calendars==<br />
During the period of Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean world there were three highly accredited calendars, namely: <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_calendar Babylonian], descendant of the Sumerian calendar, and basic contributor to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Biblical calendar]; <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian], in use since at least 2550 BC, which institutionalized a year that was 365 days long, being divided into 12 months of 30 days each; and <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiad#Era Greek] (''Era of the Olympiads''). <br />
Pliny the Elder, the Great Roman erudite scholar, attempted<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.</ref> to promote the Roman calendar as modified by Julius Caesar (i.e. the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]]) at the same level, as a ‘fourth calendar’.<ref>Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Earliest Christian Sources on the Age of the World==<br />
The earliest extant Christian writings on the age of the world according to the Biblical chronology are by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus]] (AD 115-181), the sixth bishop of Antioch from the Apostles, in his apologetic work ''To Autolycus'',<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).</ref> and by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245) in his ''Five Books of Chronology'' <ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''</ref>. Both of these early Christian writers, following the [[Septuagint]] version of the Old Testament, determined the age of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From a scholarly point of view Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] on this subject are of vital significance (''even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the [[Septuagint]], as compared to that of the Hebrew text''), in that through the Christian chronographers a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers<ref>Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275-194 B.C.) represented contemporary Alexandrian scholarship; Eupolemus, a Palestinian Jew and a friend of Judah Maccabee, writing in 158 B.C., is said to have been the first historian who synchronized Greek history in accordance with the theory of the Mosaic origin of culture. By the time of the first century B.C., a world chronicle had synchronized Jewish and Greek history and had gained international circulation: Alexander Polyhistor (flourishing in 85-35 B.C.); Varro (116-27 B.C.); Ptolemy of Mendes (50 B.C.); Apion (first century A.D.); Thrasyllus (before A.D. 36); and Thallus (first century A.D.) - all cited chronicles which had incorporated the dates of the Noachite flood and the exodus.</ref> is preserved:<br />
<br />
:An immense intellectual effort was expended during the Hellenistic period by both Jews and pagans to date creation, the flood, exodus, building of the Temple... In the course of their studies, men such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatian Tatian of Antioch]] (flourished in 180), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Clement_of_Alexandria Clement of Alexandria] (died before 215), [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (died in 235), [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]] of Jerusalem (died after 240), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in Palestine (260-340), and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers of the Hellenistic period, thereby allowing discernment of more distant scholarship.<ref>Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451-452.</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Hellenistic Jewish writer Demetrius (flourishing 221-204 B.C.) wrote ''On the Kings of Judea'' which dealt with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology; he computed the date of the flood and the birth of Abraham exactly as in the [[Septuagint]], and first established the '' '''Annus Adami''' - Era of Adam'', the antecedent of the Hebrew ''World Era'', and of the Alexandrian and Byzantine ''Creation Eras''.<br />
<br />
===Alexandrian Era===<br />
The ''' ''"Alexandrian Era"'' ''' (Greek: '' '''Κόσμου ετη κατ’ Αλεξανδρεις''' '' developed AD 412, was the precursor to the ''Byzantine Creation Era''. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others<ref>The ''' ''Era of Antioch'' ''' (5492 BC) and ''' ''Era of Alexandria'' ''' (5502 BC) were originally two different formations, differing by 10 years. They were both much in use by the early Christian writers attached to the Churches of Alexandria and Antioch. However after the year AD 284 the two eras coincided, settling on 5492 BC. (''"Epoch: Era of Antioch and Era of Alexandra."'' In: ''' ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' '''(Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841. p.73.)</ref>, the Alexandrian computation of the date of creation was worked out to be [[March 25|25 March]] 5493 BC.<ref>Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. p.73.</ref>. <br />
<br />
The Alexandrine monk Panodoros reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD 412. His years began with [[August 29]], corresponding to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thout First of Thoth], or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian]] new year.<ref>Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].</ref> Bishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annianus_of_Alexandria Annianos of Alexandria]] however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, the 25th of March, and shifted the Panodoros era by about six months, to begin on 25 March 5492 BC. This created the ''Alexandrian Era'', whose first day was the first day of the proleptic<ref>A calendar obtained by extension earlier in time than its invention or implementation is called the "proleptic" version of the calendar</ref> Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August, 5493 BC, with the ecclesiatical year beginning on 25 March, 5493 BC. <br />
<br />
:This system presents in a masterly sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the world's history: the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation, and the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ. All these events happened, according to the Alexandrian chronology, on the 25th of March; furthermore, the first two events were separated by the period of exactly 5500 years; the first and the third one occurred on Sunday — the sacred day of the beginning of the Creation and its renovation through Christ.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
Pope [[Dionysius of Alexandria]] had earlier emphatically quoted mystical justifications for the choice of March 25th as the start of the year:<br />
:[[March 25]] was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itself. It was the first day of the year in the medieval [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_calendar Julian calendar] and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian calendar was originally designed). Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned [[March 25]] into the Feast of the [[Annunciation]] which had to be followed, nine months later, by the celebration of the [[Nativity|birth of Christ]], Christmas, on [[December 25]].<br />
<br />
The ''Alexandrian Era'' of [[March 25]] 5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_the_Confessor Maximus the Confessor] and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor], as well as chroniclers such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Syncellus]. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles. However this masterpiece of Christian symbolism had two serious weak points: historical inaccuracy surrounding the date of [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] as determined by its [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus,<ref>In the commonly used 19‐year [[Holy Easter|Easter]] moon cycle, there was no year when the Passover (the first spring full moon, Nisan 14) would coincide with Friday and the traditional date of the Passion, [[March 25]]; according to Alexandrian system the date would have to have been Anno Mundi 5533 = 42(!)AD.</ref> and its contradiction to the chronology of the Gospel of [[Apostle John|St John]] regarding the date of the [[Crucifixion]] on Friday after the Passover.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
<br />
===Chronicon Paschale===<br />
A new variant of the ''World Era'' was suggested in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'', a valuable Byzantine universal chronicle of the world, composed about the year 630 AD by some representative of the Antiochian scholarly tradition.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref> It had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year A.D. 627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible and begins with [[March 21|21 March]], 5507.<br />
<br />
For its influence on Greek Christian chronology, and also because of its wide scope, the ''"Chronicon Paschale"'' takes its place beside [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius], and the chronicle of the monk [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus Georgius Syncellus]<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref> which was so important in the Middle Ages; but in respect of form it is inferior to these works.<ref>Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.</ref><br />
<br />
By the late tenth century the ''Byzantine Creation Era'', which had become fixed at [[September 1]] 5509 BC since at least the seventh century (differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian date, and 2 years from the ''Chronicon Paschale''), had become the widely accepted calendar of choice ''par excellence'' for Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.<br />
<br />
==Literal Creation Days==<br />
Even the most mystical Fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian] accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that ''the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC''. As Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose] points out:<br />
:"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology of the Old Testament, '''from Adam onwards''', is to be accepted "literally." They did not have the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological ''precision'', but even the most mystical Fathers ([http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian]], St. [[Gregory Palamas]], etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between the creation and the Birth of Christ."<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.539-540.</ref><br />
<br />
The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] also consistently affirm that each species of the animate creation came into existence instantaneously, at the command of God, with its seed within itself.<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref> [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]] for example takes this literal view in the ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron],'' a work consisitng of nine homilies delivered by St. Basil on the cosmogony of the opening chapters of Genesis, providing one of the most detailed expositions of the six days of creation to come down to us from the early church. Basil writes in Homily I that:<br />
:"Thus then, if it is said, “''In the beginning God created,''” it is to teach us that at the will of God the world arose in less than an instant,..."<ref>St. [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.ii.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''VOLUME VIII - BASIL: LETTERS AND SELECT WORKS'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.</ref><br />
<br />
Typical of the Christian conviction on this point, St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers] also affirms that the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation] was performed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo ex nihilo]: <br />
:"For all things, as the Prophet says, were made out of nothing; it was no transformation of existing things, but the creation of the non-being into a perfect form".<ref>St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV, 16.</ref><br />
The prophet cited by St.Hilary was the mother of the Maccabean martyrs, who said to one of her tortured sons, ''"I beseech you, my child, to look at heaven and earth and see everything in them, and know that God made them out of nothing; so also He made the race of man in this way"''<ref>''The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]'' ([Septuagint]). St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.653.</ref> (2 Maccabees 7:28).<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] 7:28), p.34.</ref> This text from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] was the standard biblical proof text for the Christian Church in respect to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo creation from nothingness]. We find the thesis in late Judaism, from which it passed into the Christian faith as an essential teaching.<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. pp.34-35.</ref><br />
<br />
In addition, the traditional Jewish understanding of the creation "days" of Genesis is that they are literal as well, as virtually all the Rabbis have understood in commentaries from Talmudic, Midrashic and Rabbinic sources.<ref>Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. Vol.1 (Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988. ISBN 9780932232076</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Accounts in Church Fathers==<br />
'''St. John Chrysostom'''<br />
<br />
St. [[John Chrysostom]] says clearly in his Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''", that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years."<ref>St. John Chrysostom. Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''" 1:2.</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Isaac the Syrian'''<br />
<br />
St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria Isaac the Syrian] writes in a Homily that before [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"for five thousand years five hundred and some years God left Adam (i.e. man) to labor on the earth."<ref>St. Isaac the Syrian. Homily 19, Russian edition, pp. 85 [Homily 29, English edition, p.143].</ref>.<br />
<br />
'''St. Augustine'''<br />
<br />
[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Augustine_of_Hippo Blessed Augustine] writes in the ''City of God'' (written AD 413-426):<br />
: "Let us omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race...They are deceived by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousands of years, though reckoning by the sacred writings we find that not 6,000 years have passed. (''City of God'' 12:10)<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.236.</ref>.<br />
Augustine goes on to say that the ancient Greek chronology "does not exceed the true account of the duration of the world as it is given in our documents [i.e. the Scriptures], which are truly sacred."<br />
<br />
'''St. Hippolytus'''<br />
<br />
St. [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (ca.170-235) maintained on Scriptural grounds that the Lord's birth took place in 5500 AM, and held that the birth of Christ took place on a passover day, deducing that its month-date was [[March 25|25 March]]<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.6.</ref> (see ''[[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|Alexandrian Era]]''). He gave the following intervals:<br />
<br />
:"...from Adam to the flood 2242 years, thence to Abraham 1141 years, thence to the Exodus 430 years, thence to the passover of Joshua 41 years, thence to the passover of Hezekiah 864 years, thence to the passover of Josiah 114 years, thence to the passover of Ezra 107 years, and thence to the birth of Christ 563 years."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.5.</ref>.<br />
<br />
In his ''Commentary on Daniel'', one of his earlier writings, he proceeds to set out additional reasons for accepting the date of 5500 AM:<br />
:"First he quotes Exod. xxv. 10f. and pointing out that the length, breadth and height of the Ark of the Covenant amount in all to 5 1/2 cubits, says that these symbolize the 5,500 years from Adam at the end of which the Saviour was born. He then quotes from Jn. xix. 14 ' ''it was about the sixth hour'' ' and, understanding by that 5 1/2 hours, takes each hour to correspond to a thousand years of the world's life..."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
Around AD 202 Hippolytus held that the Lord was born in the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus<ref>It is likely that his reckoning is from B.C. 43, the year in which Octavian was declared consul by senate and people and recognized as the adopted son and heir of Caesar. Epiphanius, (''Haeres'') also puts the Lord's birth in the 42nd year of Augustus when Octavius Augustus xiii and Silanus were consuls; and they were consuls in 2 B.C.</ref> and that he was born in 5500AM. In his ''Commentary on Daniel'' he did not need to establish the precise year of the Lord's birth; he is not concerned about the day of the week, the month-date, or even the year; it was sufficient for his purpose to show that Christ was born in the days of Augustus in 5500 AM.<br />
<br />
==Accounts in Byzantine Authors==<br />
From Justinian's decree in AD 537 that all dates must include the Indiction, the unification of the theological date of creation (as yet unfinalized) with the administrative system of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction] cycles became commonly referred to amongst [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians Byzantine authors], to whom the indiction was the standard measurement of time.<br />
<br />
'''In Official Documents'''<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, in the year AD 691 we find the ''Creation Era'' in the Acts of the [[Quinisext Council]] (so‐called Synodos Quinisexta).<br />
<br />
We find the era also in the dating of the so called ''Letter of three Patriarchs'' to the emperor Theophilos (April, indiction 14, 6344 = 836 AD).<br />
<br />
By the tenth century the ''Byzantine Era'' is found in the ''Novellas'' of A.D. 947, 962, 964, and most surely of the year A.D. 988, all dated in this way, as well as the Act of patriarch Nicholaos II Chrysobergos in A.D. 987.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4.</ref><br />
<br />
'''John Skylitzes'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Skylitzes John Skylitzes'] (ca.1081-1118) major work is the ''Synopsis of Histories'', which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael IV in 1057; it continues the chronicle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor]. Quoting from him as an example of the common Byzantine dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that:<br />
<br />
:"In the '''year 6508''' [1000], '''in the thirteenth indiction''', the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountains,..."<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref><br />
<br />
'''Niketas Choniates'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates Niketas Choniates]] (ca. 1155–1215), sometimes called Acominatus, was a Byzantine Greek historian. His chief work is his ''History'', in twenty-one books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. Again, an example of the dating method can be seen as he refers to the fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade as follows:<br />
<br />
:"The queen of cities fell to the Latins on the twelfth day of the month of April of the '''seventh indiction in the year 6712''' [1204]."<ref>Niketas Choniates. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984. p.338</ref><br />
<br />
'''Doukas'''<br />
<br />
The historian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas], writing circa AD 1460, makes a detailed account for the ''Creation Era''. Although unrefined in style, the history of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas] is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the closing years of the Byzantine empire. <br />
<br />
:"From Adam, the first man created by God, to Noah, at whose time the flood took place, there were ten generations. The first, which was from God, was that of Adam. The second, after 230 years, was that of Seth begotten of Adam. The third, 205 years after Seth, was that of Enos begotten of Seth. The fourth, 190 years after Enos, was that of Kainan begotten of Enos. The fifth, 170 years after Kainan, was that of Mahaleel begotten of Kainan. The sixth, 165 years after Mahaleel, was that of Jared begotten of Mahaleel. The seventh, 162 years after Jared, was that of Enoch begotten of Jared. The eighth, 165 years after Enoch, was that of Methuselah begotten of Enoch. The ninth, 167 years after Methuselah, was that of Lamech begotten of Methuselah. The tenth, 188 years after Lamech, was that of Noah. Noah was 600 years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. Thus 2242 years may be counted from Adam to the flood.<br />
<br />
:There are also ten generations from the flood to Abraham numbering 1121 years. Abraham was seventy-five years old when he moved to the land of Canaan from Mesopotamia, and having resided there twenty-five years he begat Isaac. Isaac begat two sons, Esau and Jacob. When Jacob was 130 years old he went to Egypt with his twelve sons and grandchildren, seventy-five in number. And Abraham with his offspring dwelt in the land of Canaan 433 years, and having multiplied they numbered twelve tribes; a multitude of 600,000 were reckoned from the twelve sons of Jacob whose names are as follows: Ruben, Symeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Dan, Joseph, and Benjamin.<br />
<br />
:The descendants of Levi were Moses and Aaron; the latter was the first of the priesthood while Moses was appointed to govern. In the eightieth year of his life he walked through the Red Sea and led his people out of Egypt. This Moses flourished in the time of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inachus Inachos] [son of Oceanus and King of Argos] who was the first [Greek] king to reign. Thus the Jews are more ancient than the Greeks.<br />
<br />
:Remaining in the wilderness forty years they were governed for twenty-five years by Joshua, son of Nun, and by the Judges for 454 years to the reign of Saul, the first king installed by them. During the first year of his reign the great David was born. Thus from Abraham to David fourteen generations are numbered for a total of 1024 years. From David to the deportation to Babylon [586 BC] there are fourteen generations totalling 609 years. From the Babylonian Captivity to [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] there are fourteen generations totalling 504 years.<br />
<br />
:By the sequence of Numbers we calculate the number of 5,500 years from the time of the first Adam to Christ."<ref>Doukas (ca.1460). ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. pp.57-58.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Comparative List of Dates of Creation==<br />
===Early Church Writers===<br />
* 5537 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245), Church historian.<br />
* 5529 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus] (AD 115-181), Bishop of Antioch.<br />
* '''5509 BC''' - '''Byzantine Creation Era''' or''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople."'' ''' (finalized in 7th c. AD).<br />
* 5507 BC - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'' (ca. AD 630), Byzantine universal chronicle of the world.<br />
* 5500 BC - [[Hippolytus of Rome]]. (ca. AD 234), Presbyter, writer, martyr.<br />
* '''5493 BC - Alexandrian Era''' (AD 412).<br />
* 5199 BC - [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea]], Bishop of Caesarea and Church historian (AD 324).<br />
===Other Estimates===<br />
* 5199 BC - Mentioned in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Roman Martyrology]''<ref>Roman Martyrology: Some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic Traditionalist Catholics] use the year 5199 BC, which is taken from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Catholic martyrologies], and referred to as the true date of Creation in the "''Mystical City of God''," a 17th-century mystical work written by Maria de Agreda concerning creation and the life of the Virgin Mary. This year was also used earlier by the church historian [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in 324. (V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. 1958. pp.24-25).</ref>, published by the authority of Pope Gregory XIII in 1584, later confirmed in 1630 under Pope Urban VIII.<br />
* 4963 BC - According to the Benedictine Chronology<ref>Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine]. ''Art of Verifying Dates''. 4to, 1750. Printed again in folio in 1770.<br />
:Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine] was a Benedictine monk, born at Gourieux, in the diocese of Liege, in 1688. He died in 1746. In France the Benedictine Maurist Order presided over the publication of a remarkable series of source collections for both ecclesiastical and secular history, and sponsored the major studies of documentation and chronology of the period. (John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887. p.235.)<br><br />
:Chronology was made a new science by this order of scholars. The ''"[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Art_de_v%C3%A9rifier_les_dates Art de vérifer les dates]"'', by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Dantine] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cl%C3%A9mencet Charles Clémencet], is regarded as the chief monument of French learning in the eighteenth century. (Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p.171.)</ref>, the Creation of Adam is given this date (AD 1750).<br />
* 4004 BC<ref>Anglican and Protestant: In the English-speaking world, one of the most well known estimates in modern times is that of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] (1581–1656), who proposed a date of Sunday, [[October 23]], 4004 BC, in the Julian calendar. He placed the beginning of this first day of creation, and hence the exact time of creation, at the previous nightfall. (See the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher chronology]). When Queen Victoria came to the English throne in AD 1837, 4004 B.C. was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of the world. (Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology]).</ref> - Anglican Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher]] (AD 1650).<br />
* 3952 BC - Venerable [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bede Bede] (ca. AD 725), English Benedictine monk.<br />
* 3761 BC<ref>In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Jewish calendar was reformed. F. Rühl has shown that the adoption of this era must have taken place between the year 222, when Julius Africanus reports that the Jews still retained the eight-year lunar cycle (which is referred to in the pseudepigraphal ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Book_of_Enoch Book of Enoch]'' (74:13-16); see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch Calendar]), and 276, when Anatolius makes use of the nineteen year [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] to determine Easter after the manner of the Jews. It may be further conjectured that it was introduced about the year 240-241, the first year of the fifth thousand, according to this calculation, and that the tradition which associated its determination with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_of_Nehardea Mar Samuel] (d. about 250) is justified. (F. Rühl. ''Der Ursprung der Jüdischen Weltära, in Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft''. 1898. pp. 185,202.)</ref><ref>According to the popular tradition, the epoch that Hebrew calendar currently uses, the '''Hillel World Era''', beginning [[October 7]], 3761 BC, is traditionally regarded as having been calculated by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_II Hillel II] in the 4th century AD (ca. 358 AD), but did not become universal practice until the end of the Middle Ages. Scholars of this subject however believe that the evolution of the Hebrew calendar into its present form was actually a gradual process spanning several centuries from the first to about the eighth or ninth century AD.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] [Judaism] - (ca. AD 222-276); or, (ca. AD 358 - ''Hillel World Era'').<br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
* According to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]: <br />
:Regarding questions about the scientific accuracy of the Genesis account of creation, and about various viewpoints concerning evolution, '''the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] has not dogmatized any particular view'''. What is dogmatically proclaimed is that the One Triune God created everything that exists, and that man was created in a unique way and is alone made ''in the image and likeness of God'' (Gn 1:26,27).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref><br />
:The opening words of the [[Nicene Creed]], the central doctrinal statement of Christianity, affirms that the One True God is the source of everything that exists, both physical and spiritual, both animate and inanimate: ''"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible."'' In addition, our regeneration in Christ and the resurrection of the dead are both often called the '''"New Creation"''' (2 Cor 5:17; Rev 21:1).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.1778.</ref><br />
<br />
* According to Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley Harakas], the Bible's description of creation is not a "scientific account". It is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of the origins of mankind, though important, is really quite secondary in significance to the Church's message. The central image of Adam as God's image and likeness, who also represents fallen and sinful humanity, and the new Adam, [[Jesus Christ]], who is the "beginning", the first-born of the dead (Colossians 1:18) and the "first-fruits" of those who were dead, and are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20-23), is what is really important.<ref>Fr. Stanley S. Harakas. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988. pp.88,91.</ref> <br />
<br />
* Professor Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]), a nineteenth century historian, observed that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Biblical Chronologies] are uncertain due to discrepancies in the figures in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Genesis] and other methodological factors, accounting for hundreds of different chronologies being assigned by historians. In the case of the Fathers of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, who assigned 5509 B.C. as the date of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis creation of man], he writes that it was in response to the emperor's wishes to fix an era or convenient starting point for historical computation. Therefore it was a decision of mere historical convenience, not respecting either faith or morals.<ref>Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.</ref><br />
<br />
* It may also be noted historically that while Byzantine officials and chroniclers were disconcerted by the ambiguities among the different dating and recording systems in the earlier centuries, these mattered little to most people who marked time by the orderly progression of agricultual seasons and church festivals, and by the regularity of holidays, weather cycles, and years that revealed the Divine order (''Taxis'') underlying the world.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.8</ref><br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, Christians began at an early period to adopt the Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world.<ref>Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_the_Creation_of_the_World Chronology - Era of the Creation of the World].</ref><br />
<br />
Currently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the Biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of Genesis. The older dates of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] in the ''Byzantine Creation Era'' and in its precursor, the ''Alexandrian Era'', are based on the Greek [[Septuagint]]. The later dates of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] and the Hebrew Calendar are based on the Hebrew Masoretic text. <br />
<br />
The Fathers were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Old Testament chronology,<ref>Note that according to Dr. Wacholder, [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Josephus Josephus'] chronology for the antediluvian period (pre-flood) conforms with the LXX ([[Septuagint]]), but for the Noachites (post-flood) he used the Hebrew text. He chose this method to resolve the problem of the two chronological systems.</ref> and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.602-603.</ref><br />
<br />
To this day, traditional Orthodox Christians will use the Byzantine calculation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etos_Kosmou Etos Kosmou] in conjunction with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Anno Domini] (AD) year. Both dates appear on Orthodox cornerstones, ecclesiastical calendars and formal documents. The ecclesiastical new year is still observed on [[September 1]] (or on the Gregorian Calendar's [[September 14]] for those churches which follow the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]). September 2008 marked the beginning of the year 7517 of this era.<br />
<br />
==Appendix 1: Orthodox Observation of Time==<br />
'''Hours of the Liturgical Day'''<br><br />
In the Byzantine period the day was divided into two 12-hour cycles fixed by the rising and setting of the sun.<br />
:"Following Roman custom, the Byzantines began their calendrical day (''nychthemeron'') at midnight with the first hour of day (''hemera'') coming at dawn. The third hour marked midmorning, the sixth hour noon, and the ninth hour midafternoon. Evening (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Vespers hespera]]'') began at the 11th hour, and with sunset came the first hour of night (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Compline apodeipnon]]''). The interval between sunset and sunrise (''nyx'') was similarly divided into 12 hours as well as the traditional "watches" (''vigiliae'') of Roman times."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3</ref><br />
'''Days of the Liturgical Week'''<br><br />
Dr. Marcus Rautman points out that the seven-day week was known throughout the ancient world. The Roman Calendar had assigned one of the planetary deities to each day of the week. The Byzantines naturally avoided using these Latin names with their pagan echoes. They began their week with the "[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Lord%27s_Day Lord's Day]" (Kyriake), followed by an orderly succession of numbered days (Deutera, Trite, Tetarte, and Pempte), a day of "preparation" (Paraskeve), and finally Sabatton.<br />
:"Each day was devoted to remembering one or more martyrs or saints, whose observed feast days gradually eclipsed traditional festivals. Kyriake was seen as both the first and eighth day of the week, in the same way that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] was the alpha and omega of the cosmos, existing both before and after time. The second day of the week recognized angels, "the secondary luminaries as the first reflections of the primal outpouring of light," just as the sun and the moon had been observed during the Roman week. [[Saint John the Baptist|John the Baptist]], the forerunner (Prodromos) of Christ, was honored on the third day. Both the second and third days were viewed as occasions for penitence. The fourth and sixth days were dedicated to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Cross Cross] with holy songs sung in remembrance of the Crucifixion. The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] was honored on the fifth day of the week, while the seventh day was set aside for the martyrs of the church."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.5</ref><br />
<br />
==Appendix 2: Key Dates according to the Byzantine Era==<br />
* 1 AM (5509 BC) - [ Creation of the world].<br />
* 4755 AM (753 BC) - Rome was founded.<br />
* 4841 AM (667 BC) - City of Byzantium was founded.<br />
* ca. 5504 AM (4 BC) - Jesus of Nazareth was born.<br />
* ca. 5538 AM (AD 30) - Jesus Christ's crucifixion and resurrection.<br />
* 5838 AM (AD 330) - [[Constantinople]] becomes the new capital of the Roman Empire.<br />
* 5888 AM (AD 380) - Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire by decree of [[Theodosius I]].<br />
* 5903 AM (AD 395) - Death of Theodosius I divides the Roman Empire into East and West.<br />
* 6045 AM (AD 537) - Justinian I decrees that the indiction must be included when designating a Byzantine year. <br />
* 6118 AM (AD 610) - Eastern Roman Empire changed its official language from Latin to Greek.<br />
* 6200 AM (AD 692) - Quinisext Council; first known official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' for dating.<br />
* 6496 AM (AD 988) - Official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' by Basil II; [ Conversion of the Rus], ''Byzantine Era'' adopted in Russia.<br />
* 6562 AM (AD 1054) - [ Great Schism] occurs between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
* 6712 AM (AD 1204) - Sack of Constantinople by soldiers of the [[Fourth Crusade]]; Latin Empire of Constantinople was established.<br />
* 6769 AM (AD 1261) - Byzantine Empire is re-established; [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Double-headed_eagle Double-headed eagle] is adopted as the official flag of the Byzantine Empire by Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.<ref>Josh Fruhlinger. [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_byz.html Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Imperial Flag]. '''Flags of the World''', 27 January, 1999.</ref>.<br />
* 6961 AM (AD 1453) - [[Fall of Constantinople]] -- The final collapse of the Byzantine Empire. The civilization of Rome (in its most inclusive sense including both Ancient Rome and New Rome (Constantinople)) lasted a total of 2,206 years.<br />
* 7000 AM (AD 1492) - Millennialist movements in Moscow due to the end of the church calendar.<br />
* 7427-7430 AM (AD 1919-1922) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919-1922) Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922].<br />
* 7518 AM = (September 1, 2009 - August 31, 2010).<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
===Wikipedia===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Anno Mundi].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Book of Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_era Calendar era].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Chronology of the Bible].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_Creation Dating Creation].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo Ex nihilo].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameron Hexameron].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar Julian calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar Lunisolar calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint Septuagint].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism Young Earth creationism].<br />
'''Principal Considerations for the Byzantine Calendar'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation according to Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle_(calendar) Solar cycle (calendar)] (28-year solar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] (19 year lunar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiction Indiction] (15 year indiction cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computus Easter Computus].<br />
'''Other Judeo-Christian Eras'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_calendar Coptic Calendar]. (Note that the '''"''Alexandrian Era''"''' (March 25, 5493 BC), is distinct from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", which is derived from the ancient [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian Calendar] and based on the ''' ''Era of the Martyrs'' '''(August 29, 284)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_calendar Ethiopian Calendar]. (Derived from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", and based on the ''' ''Incarnation Era'' ''' (August 29, AD 8)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar#Epoch_year Hebrew calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher_chronology].<br />
===Other External Links===<br />
'''In Greek'''<br />
* [http://el.orthodoxwiki.org/%CE%88%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85 Έτος Κόσμου].<br />
'''OrthodoxWiki'''<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Septuagint Septuagint]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Genesis Genesis]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Evolution Evolution]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gaussian_Formulae Gaussian Formulae]<br />
'''Hebrew Calendar'''<br />
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=438&letter=E#1154 The Era of the Creation] at Jewish Encyclopedia. <br />
* [http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Fact-Archive.com<br />
* [http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Absolute Astronomy.<br />
* [http://www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar] by Karl Hagen (medievalist).<br />
'''Other'''<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Labyrinth/2398/bginfo/trade/time.html Byzantine ways of reckoning time]<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_Constantinople Era of Constantinople] at Classic Encyclopedia (''Based on the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911'').<br />
* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. Charles Ellis, University of Bristol. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.smso.net/Calendar_era#Christian_era Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era] at SMSO Encyclopedia (''Saudi Medical Site Online'').<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In, '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/chronology.html Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs].<br />
* Dr. Stephen C. Meyers. [http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodusdate.htm Biblical Archaeology: The Date of the Exodus According to Ancient Writers]. Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies (IBSS). Updated April 30, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Young_earth_creationism Young earth creationism] at CreationWiki.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Theory_of_evolution Theory of evolution] at CreationWiki.<br />
<br />
==Bibliography and Further Reading==<br />
===Primary Sources===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas]. ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. (Vol.1 - Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates]. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.<br />
* St. [[Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''Volume VIII - Basil: Letters and Select Works'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.<br />
* St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV.<br />
* ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated. <br> <br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes]. ''The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813''. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).<br />
<br />
===Secondary Sources===<br />
* Anthony Bryer. ''“Chronology and Dating”''. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pnkxofhi4mQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies].''' Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31-37.<br />
* Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology] at Classic Encyclopedia (''based on the 11th ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica, pub.1911'').<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451–481.<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography''. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.<br />
* Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC&printsec=frontcover Chronology of the Old Testament]''. Master Books, AZ, 1993. Repr. 2005. ''(supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).''<br />
* E.G. Richards. ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History''. Oxford University Press, 1998. <br />
* Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. <br />
* Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000.<br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley S. Harakas]. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.<br />
* Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.<br />
* George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp.2–18.<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <br />
* Jack Finegan. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible''. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. <br />
* K.A. Worp. ''[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/9250/1/5_039_134.pdf Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents]''. 1985. University of Amsterdam.<br />
* Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.<br />
* Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.<br />
* Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006.<br />
* Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). ''[http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]''. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3–8.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PVCUZ7BTD2gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enoch+74%22+AND+%22cycle%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity]''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (''Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission'').<br />
* Prof. Dr. William Adler. ''Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus''. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. <br />
* Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''"Era."'' '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]'''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].<br />
* Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. ''The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt''. Zutphen, 1978. <br />
* ''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. <br />
* V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.<br />
* Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.<br />
* Yiannis E. Meimaris. ''Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia''. Athens, 1992.<br />
'''19th Century and Earlier'''<br />
* John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887.<br />
* Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Pozna%C5%84ski Samuel Poznański]. ''Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar.'' in '''The Jewish Quarterly Review''', Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), pp. 152–161.<br />
* Sir [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Browne Thomas Browne]. ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo61.html Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 - Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical]''. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. pp. 321-330.<br />
* ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.<br />
<br />
<br />
''This article incorporates text from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Byzantine_Creation_Era Byzantine Creation Era] at [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki] under the terms of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Free Documentation License].'' <br />
<br />
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]<br />
[[Category:Timelines]]<br />
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Byzantine_Creation_Era&diff=39336Byzantine Creation Era2009-07-09T22:28:18Z<p>Angellight 888: Update, more info; minor re-organization; add sources; tighten references.</p>
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<div>The '''Byzantine Creation Era''', also ''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople,"'' ''' or ''' ''"Era of the World"'' ''' (Greek: ''' ''Έτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατά 'Ρωμαίους'' ''',<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''How Old is The World? The Byzantine Era and its Rivals''. Institute for World History, Moscow, Russia. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, Fiona K. Haarer, Judith Gilliland. '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=YWec0i621ekC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21-26 August, 2006: Vol. 3, Abstracts of Communications].''' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. pp. 23-24.</ref> also ''' ''Έτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου'' ''' or ''' ''Έτος Κόσμου'' ''') was the Calendar officially used by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] from ca. AD 691 to 1728 in the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], and from ca. AD 988 to 1700 in [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Russia Holy Russia], and by the [[Byzantine Empire]]<ref>i.e. '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. The term Byzantine was invented by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1557 but was popularized by French scholars during the 18th century to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. The citizens of the empire considered themselves ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), their emperor was the "Roman Emperor", and their empire the ''Basileia ton Romaion'' ("Empire of the Romans"). The Latin West designated the empire as "Romania", and the Muslims as "Rum".</ref> from AD 988 to 1453. Its year one, the date of creation, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC.<br />
<br />
Derived from the [[Septuagint]], it placed the date of creation at 5,509 years before the Incarnation, and was characterized by a certain tendency which had already been a tradition amongst Hebrews and Jews to number the years ''from the foundation of the world'' (Greek - ''‘Etos Kosmou/Apo Kataboles Kosmou’'',<ref>The phrase ''"Apo Kataboles Kosmou"'' (''"from the foundation of the world"'') occurs in Matthew 25:34, Luke 11:50, Hebrews 4:3, 9:26, and Revelation 13:8, 17:8.</ref> or Latin - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Annus Mundi]/‘Ab Origine Mundi’'' ('''AM''')).<br />
<br />
We do not know who invented this era and when, however it appears for the first time in the treatise of a certain “monk and priest”, Georgios (AD 638-39), who mentions all the main variants of the ''"World Era"'' (''Ére Mondiale'') in his work.<ref>Fr. Diekamp, ''“Der Mönch und Presbyter Georgios, ein unbekannter Schriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts,”'' BZ 9 (1900) 14–51.</ref><ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.3.</ref>. Georgios makes it clear that the main advantage of the Byzantine era is the common starting point of the astronomical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar lunar and solar cycles], and of the cycle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indictions], the usual dating system in Byzantium since the sixth century. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus. Complex calculations of the 19-year lunar and 28-year solar cycles within this world era allowed scholars to discover the cosmic significance of certain historical dates, such as the birth of Christ or the Crucifixion.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Daily+Life+in+the+Byzantine+Empire ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.7</ref> <br />
<br />
This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the seventh century A.D., although its precursors were developed circa AD 412 (see [[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|''Alexandrian Era'']]). By the second half of the 7th century the ''Creation Era'' was known in the far West of Europe, in Britain.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4. (PL XC, 598, 877 (Pseudo‐Beda)).</ref> By the late tenth century around AD 988, when the era appears in use on offical government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world.<br />
<br />
The era was ultimately calculated as starting on [[September 1|September 1st]], and Jesus Christ was thought to have been born in the year 5509 ''Annus Mundi'' (AM) - the year since the creation of the world.<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref>. Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christ's birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'' since the date of Christ's birth was debated in Constantinople as late as the fourteenth century. Otherwise the ''Creation Era'' was identical to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]] except that: <br />
:*the names of the months were transcribed from Latin into Greek, <br />
:*the first day of the year was [[September 1]],<ref>About the year 462 the Byzantine [http://orthodoxwiki.org/IndictionIndiction] was moved from [[September 23]] to [[September 1]], where it remained throughout the rest of the Byzantine Empire, representing the present day beginning of the Church year. In 537 Justinian decreed that all dates must include the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction indiction], so it was officially adopted as one way to identify a Byzantine year, becoming compulsory.</ref> so that both the Ecclesiatical and Civil calendar years ran from [[September 1|1 September]] to [[August 31|31 August]], (see [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]), which to the present day is the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church year]], and,<br />
:*the date of creation, '''its year one, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC'''.<br />
<br />
It is referred to indirectly in '''Canon III''' of the '''[[Quinisext Council]]''', which the Orthodox Churches consider as ecumenical, its canons being added to the decrees of the [[Second Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] and [[Third Council of Constantinople|Sixth]] Councils, as follows:<br />
:"... as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, ''in the last fourth [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]'', '''in the year six thousand one hundred and ninety [6190]''', ..."<ref>''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated.<br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983).</ref><br />
<br />
The ''Creation Era'' was gradually replaced in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] by the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Christian Era]'', which was utilized initially by Patriarch [[Theophanes I of Constantinople|Theophanes I Karykes]] in 1597, afterwards by Patriarch [[Cyril Lucaris]] in 1626, and then formally established by the Church in 1728.<ref>"Οικουμενικόν Πατριαρχείον", ΘHE, τόμ. 09, εκδ. Μαρτίνος Αθ., Αθήνα 1966, στ. 778.<br>(''"Ecumenical Patriarchate"''. '''Religious and Ethical Encyclopedia.''' Vol. 9., Athens, 1966. p.778.)</ref> Meanwhile as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the ''Creation Era'' (translated into Slavonic). After the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the ''Creation Era'' continued to be used by Russia, which witnessed millennialist movements in Moscow in AD 1492 (7000 AM) due to the end of the church calendar. It was only in 1700 that the ''Creation Era'' in Russia was changed to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar] by Peter the Great.<ref>Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. ''The Literary Encyclopedia''. 25 September, 2008.</ref>. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today. September AD 2000 began the year 7509 AM.<ref>To convert our era to the Byzantine era, add 5509 years from September to December, and 5508 years from January to August.</ref><br />
<br />
==Important Early Calendars==<br />
During the period of Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean world there were three highly accredited calendars, namely: <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_calendar Babylonian], descendant of the Sumerian calendar, and basic contributor to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Biblical calendar]; <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian], in use since at least 2550 BC, which institutionalized a year that was 365 days long, being divided into 12 months of 30 days each; and <br />
: * the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiad#Era Greek] (''Era of the Olympiads''). <br />
Pliny the Elder, the Great Roman erudite scholar, attempted<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.</ref> to promote the Roman calendar as modified by Julius Caesar (i.e. the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]]) at the same level, as a ‘fourth calendar’.<ref>Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Earliest Christian Sources on the Age of the World==<br />
The earliest extant Christian writings on the age of the world according to the Biblical chronology are by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus]] (AD 115-181), the sixth bishop of Antioch from the Apostles, in his apologetic work ''To Autolycus'',<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).</ref> and by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245) in his ''Five Books of Chronology'' <ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''</ref>. Both of these early Christian writers, following the [[Septuagint]] version of the Old Testament, determined the age of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From a scholarly point of view Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] on this subject are of vital significance (''even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the [[Septuagint]], as compared to that of the Hebrew text''), in that through the Christian chronographers a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers<ref>Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275-194 B.C.) represented contemporary Alexandrian scholarship; Eupolemus, a Palestinian Jew and a friend of Judah Maccabee, writing in 158 B.C., is said to have been the first historian who synchronized Greek history in accordance with the theory of the Mosaic origin of culture. By the time of the first century B.C., a world chronicle had synchronized Jewish and Greek history and had gained international circulation: Alexander Polyhistor (flourishing in 85-35 B.C.); Varro (116-27 B.C.); Ptolemy of Mendes (50 B.C.); Apion (first century A.D.); Thrasyllus (before A.D. 36); and Thallus (first century A.D.) - all cited chronicles which had incorporated the dates of the Noachite flood and the exodus.</ref> is preserved:<br />
<br />
:An immense intellectual effort was expended during the Hellenistic period by both Jews and pagans to date creation, the flood, exodus, building of the Temple... In the course of their studies, men such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatian Tatian of Antioch]] (flourished in 180), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Clement_of_Alexandria Clement of Alexandria] (died before 215), [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (died in 235), [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]] of Jerusalem (died after 240), [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in Palestine (260-340), and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers of the Hellenistic period, thereby allowing discernment of more distant scholarship.<ref>Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451-452.</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Hellenistic Jewish writer Demetrius (flourishing 221-204 B.C.) wrote ''On the Kings of Judea'' which dealt with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology; he computed the date of the flood and the birth of Abraham exactly as in the [[Septuagint]], and first established the '' '''Annus Adami''' - Era of Adam'', the antecedent of the Hebrew ''World Era'', and of the Alexandrian and Byzantine ''Creation Eras''.<br />
<br />
===Alexandrian Era===<br />
The ''' ''"Alexandrian Era"'' ''' (Greek: '' '''Κόσμου ετη κατ’ Αλεξανδρεις''' '' developed AD 412, was the precursor to the ''Byzantine Creation Era''. After the initial attempts by Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria and others<ref>The ''' ''Era of Antioch'' ''' (5492 BC) and ''' ''Era of Alexandria'' ''' (5502 BC) were originally two different formations, differing by 10 years. They were both much in use by the early Christian writers attached to the Churches of Alexandria and Antioch. However after the year AD 284 the two eras coincided, settling on 5492 BC. (''"Epoch: Era of Antioch and Era of Alexandra."'' In: ''' ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' '''(Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841. p.73.)</ref>, the Alexandrian computation of the date of creation was worked out to be [[March 25|25 March]] 5493 BC.<ref>Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. p.73.</ref>. <br />
<br />
The Alexandrine monk Panodoros reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD 412. His years began with [[August 29]], corresponding to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thout First of Thoth], or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian]] new year.<ref>Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].</ref> Bishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annianus_of_Alexandria Annianos of Alexandria]] however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, the 25th of March, and shifted the Panodoros era by about six months, to begin on 25 March 5492 BC. This created the ''Alexandrian Era'', whose first day was the first day of the proleptic<ref>A calendar obtained by extension earlier in time than its invention or implementation is called the "proleptic" version of the calendar</ref> Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August, 5493 BC, with the ecclesiatical year beginning on 25 March, 5493 BC. <br />
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:This system presents in a masterly sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the world's history: the beginning of Creation, the Incarnation, and the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ. All these events happened, according to the Alexandrian chronology, on the 25th of March; furthermore, the first two events were separated by the period of exactly 5500 years; the first and the third one occurred on Sunday — the sacred day of the beginning of the Creation and its renovation through Christ.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
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Pope [[Dionysius of Alexandria]] had earlier emphatically quoted mystical justifications for the choice of March 25th as the start of the year:<br />
:[[March 25]] was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itself. It was the first day of the year in the medieval [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_calendar Julian calendar] and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian calendar was originally designed). Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned [[March 25]] into the Feast of the [[Annunciation]] which had to be followed, nine months later, by the celebration of the [[Nativity|birth of Christ]], Christmas, on [[December 25]].<br />
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The ''Alexandrian Era'' of [[March 25]] 5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_the_Confessor Maximus the Confessor] and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor], as well as chroniclers such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Syncellus]. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles. However this masterpiece of Christian symbolism had two serious weak points: historical inaccuracy surrounding the date of [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] as determined by its [[Holy Easter|Easter]] computus,<ref>In the commonly used 19‐year [[Holy Easter|Easter]] moon cycle, there was no year when the Passover (the first spring full moon, Nisan 14) would coincide with Friday and the traditional date of the Passion, [[March 25]]; according to Alexandrian system the date would have to have been Anno Mundi 5533 = 42(!)AD.</ref> and its contradiction to the chronology of the Gospel of [[Apostle John|St John]] regarding the date of the [[Crucifixion]] on Friday after the Passover.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref><br />
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===Chronicon Paschale===<br />
A new variant of the ''World Era'' was suggested in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'', a valuable Byzantine universal chronicle of the world, composed about the year 630 AD by some representative of the Antiochian scholarly tradition.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.2.</ref> It had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of Adam to the year A.D. 627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible and begins with [[March 21|21 March]], 5507.<br />
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For its influence on Greek Christian chronology, and also because of its wide scope, the ''"Chronicon Paschale"'' takes its place beside [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius], and the chronicle of the monk [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus Georgius Syncellus]<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref> which was so important in the Middle Ages; but in respect of form it is inferior to these works.<ref>Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.</ref><br />
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By the late tenth century the ''Byzantine Creation Era'', which had become fixed at [[September 1]] 5509 BC since at least the seventh century (differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian date, and 2 years from the ''Chronicon Paschale''), had become the widely accepted calendar of choice ''par excellence'' for Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.<br />
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==Literal Creation Days==<br />
Even the most mystical Fathers such as [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian] accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that ''the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC''. As Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose] points out:<br />
:"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology of the Old Testament, '''from Adam onwards''', is to be accepted "literally." They did not have the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological ''precision'', but even the most mystical Fathers ([http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria St. Isaac the Syrian]], St. [[Gregory Palamas]], etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between the creation and the Birth of Christ."<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.539-540.</ref><br />
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The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] also consistently affirm that each species of the animate creation came into existence instantaneously, at the command of God, with its seed within itself.<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref> [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]] for example takes this literal view in the ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron],'' a work consisitng of nine homilies delivered by St. Basil on the cosmogony of the opening chapters of Genesis, providing one of the most detailed expositions of the six days of creation to come down to us from the early church. Basil writes in Homily I that:<br />
:"Thus then, if it is said, “''In the beginning God created,''” it is to teach us that at the will of God the world arose in less than an instant,..."<ref>St. [[Saint Basil|Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.ii.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''VOLUME VIII - BASIL: LETTERS AND SELECT WORKS'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.</ref><br />
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Typical of the Christian conviction on this point, St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers] also affirms that the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation] was performed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo ex nihilo]: <br />
:"For all things, as the Prophet says, were made out of nothing; it was no transformation of existing things, but the creation of the non-being into a perfect form".<ref>St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV, 16.</ref><br />
The prophet cited by St.Hilary was the mother of the Maccabean martyrs, who said to one of her tortured sons, ''"I beseech you, my child, to look at heaven and earth and see everything in them, and know that God made them out of nothing; so also He made the race of man in this way"''<ref>''The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]'' ([Septuagint]). St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.653.</ref> (2 Maccabees 7:28).<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] 7:28), p.34.</ref> This text from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Maccabees 2 Maccabees] was the standard biblical proof text for the Christian Church in respect to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo creation from nothingness]. We find the thesis in late Judaism, from which it passed into the Christian faith as an essential teaching.<ref>Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. pp.34-35.</ref><br />
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In addition, the traditional Jewish understanding of the creation "days" of Genesis is that they are literal as well, as virtually all the Rabbis have understood in commentaries from Talmudic, Midrashic and Rabbinic sources.<ref>Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.</ref><ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. Vol.1 (Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988. ISBN 9780932232076</ref>.<br />
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==Accounts in Church Fathers==<br />
'''St. John Chrysostom'''<br />
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St. [[John Chrysostom]] says clearly in his Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''", that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"opened for us today Paradise, which had remained closed for some 5000 years."<ref>St. John Chrysostom. Homily "''On the Cross and the Thief''" 1:2.</ref>.<br />
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'''St. Isaac the Syrian'''<br />
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St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria Isaac the Syrian] writes in a Homily that before [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]: <br />
:"for five thousand years five hundred and some years God left Adam (i.e. man) to labor on the earth."<ref>St. Isaac the Syrian. Homily 19, Russian edition, pp. 85 [Homily 29, English edition, p.143].</ref>.<br />
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'''St. Augustine'''<br />
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[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Augustine_of_Hippo Blessed Augustine] writes in the ''City of God'' (written AD 413-426):<br />
: "Let us omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race...They are deceived by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousands of years, though reckoning by the sacred writings we find that not 6,000 years have passed. (''City of God'' 12:10)<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.236.</ref>.<br />
Augustine goes on to say that the ancient Greek chronology "does not exceed the true account of the duration of the world as it is given in our documents [i.e. the Scriptures], which are truly sacred."<br />
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'''St. Hippolytus'''<br />
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St. [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (ca.170-235) maintained on Scriptural grounds that the Lord's birth took place in 5500 AM, and held that the birth of Christ took place on a passover day, deducing that its month-date was [[March 25|25 March]]<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.6.</ref> (see ''[[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|Alexandrian Era]]''). He gave the following intervals:<br />
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:"...from Adam to the flood 2242 years, thence to Abraham 1141 years, thence to the Exodus 430 years, thence to the passover of Joshua 41 years, thence to the passover of Hezekiah 864 years, thence to the passover of Josiah 114 years, thence to the passover of Ezra 107 years, and thence to the birth of Christ 563 years."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.5.</ref>.<br />
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In his ''Commentary on Daniel'', one of his earlier writings, he proceeds to set out additional reasons for accepting the date of 5500 AM:<br />
:"First he quotes Exod. xxv. 10f. and pointing out that the length, breadth and height of the Ark of the Covenant amount in all to 5 1/2 cubits, says that these symbolize the 5,500 years from Adam at the end of which the Saviour was born. He then quotes from Jn. xix. 14 ' ''it was about the sixth hour'' ' and, understanding by that 5 1/2 hours, takes each hour to correspond to a thousand years of the world's life..."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.4.</ref><br />
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Around AD 202 Hippolytus held that the Lord was born in the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus<ref>It is likely that his reckoning is from B.C. 43, the year in which Octavian was declared consul by senate and people and recognized as the adopted son and heir of Caesar. Epiphanius, (''Haeres'') also puts the Lord's birth in the 42nd year of Augustus when Octavius Augustus xiii and Silanus were consuls; and they were consuls in 2 B.C.</ref> and that he was born in 5500AM. In his ''Commentary on Daniel'' he did not need to establish the precise year of the Lord's birth; he is not concerned about the day of the week, the month-date, or even the year; it was sufficient for his purpose to show that Christ was born in the days of Augustus in 5500 AM.<br />
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==Accounts in Byzantine Authors==<br />
From Justinian's decree in AD 537 that all dates must include the Indiction, the unification of the theological date of creation (as yet unfinalized) with the administrative system of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction] cycles became commonly referred to amongst [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians Byzantine authors], to whom the indiction was the standard measurement of time.<br />
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'''In Official Documents'''<br />
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As mentioned above, in the year AD 691 we find the ''Creation Era'' in the Acts of the [[Quinisext Council]] (so‐called Synodos Quinisexta).<br />
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We find the era also in the dating of the so called ''Letter of three Patriarchs'' to the emperor Theophilos (April, indiction 14, 6344 = 836 AD).<br />
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By the tenth century the ''Byzantine Era'' is found in the ''Novellas'' of A.D. 947, 962, 964, and most surely of the year A.D. 988, all dated in this way, as well as the Act of patriarch Nicholaos II Chrysobergos in A.D. 987.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.byzantinecongress.org.uk/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4.</ref><br />
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'''John Skylitzes'''<br />
<br />
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Skylitzes John Skylitzes'] (ca.1081-1118) major work is the ''Synopsis of Histories'', which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael IV in 1057; it continues the chronicle of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes the Confessor]. Quoting from him as an example of the common Byzantine dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that:<br />
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:"In the '''year 6508''' [1000], '''in the thirteenth indiction''', the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountains,..."<ref>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref><br />
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'''Niketas Choniates'''<br />
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[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates Niketas Choniates]] (ca. 1155–1215), sometimes called Acominatus, was a Byzantine Greek historian. His chief work is his ''History'', in twenty-one books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. Again, an example of the dating method can be seen as he refers to the fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade as follows:<br />
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:"The queen of cities fell to the Latins on the twelfth day of the month of April of the '''seventh indiction in the year 6712''' [1204]."<ref>Niketas Choniates. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984. p.338</ref><br />
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'''Doukas'''<br />
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The historian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas], writing circa AD 1460, makes a detailed account for the ''Creation Era''. Although unrefined in style, the history of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas] is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the closing years of the Byzantine empire. <br />
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:"From Adam, the first man created by God, to Noah, at whose time the flood took place, there were ten generations. The first, which was from God, was that of Adam. The second, after 230 years, was that of Seth begotten of Adam. The third, 205 years after Seth, was that of Enos begotten of Seth. The fourth, 190 years after Enos, was that of Kainan begotten of Enos. The fifth, 170 years after Kainan, was that of Mahaleel begotten of Kainan. The sixth, 165 years after Mahaleel, was that of Jared begotten of Mahaleel. The seventh, 162 years after Jared, was that of Enoch begotten of Jared. The eighth, 165 years after Enoch, was that of Methuselah begotten of Enoch. The ninth, 167 years after Methuselah, was that of Lamech begotten of Methuselah. The tenth, 188 years after Lamech, was that of Noah. Noah was 600 years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. Thus 2242 years may be counted from Adam to the flood.<br />
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:There are also ten generations from the flood to Abraham numbering 1121 years. Abraham was seventy-five years old when he moved to the land of Canaan from Mesopotamia, and having resided there twenty-five years he begat Isaac. Isaac begat two sons, Esau and Jacob. When Jacob was 130 years old he went to Egypt with his twelve sons and grandchildren, seventy-five in number. And Abraham with his offspring dwelt in the land of Canaan 433 years, and having multiplied they numbered twelve tribes; a multitude of 600,000 were reckoned from the twelve sons of Jacob whose names are as follows: Ruben, Symeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Dan, Joseph, and Benjamin.<br />
<br />
:The descendants of Levi were Moses and Aaron; the latter was the first of the priesthood while Moses was appointed to govern. In the eightieth year of his life he walked through the Red Sea and led his people out of Egypt. This Moses flourished in the time of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inachus Inachos] [son of Oceanus and King of Argos] who was the first [Greek] king to reign. Thus the Jews are more ancient than the Greeks.<br />
<br />
:Remaining in the wilderness forty years they were governed for twenty-five years by Joshua, son of Nun, and by the Judges for 454 years to the reign of Saul, the first king installed by them. During the first year of his reign the great David was born. Thus from Abraham to David fourteen generations are numbered for a total of 1024 years. From David to the deportation to Babylon [586 BC] there are fourteen generations totalling 609 years. From the Babylonian Captivity to [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] there are fourteen generations totalling 504 years.<br />
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:By the sequence of Numbers we calculate the number of 5,500 years from the time of the first Adam to Christ."<ref>Doukas (ca.1460). ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. pp.57-58.</ref>.<br />
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==Comparative List of Dates of Creation==<br />
===Early Church Writers===<br />
* 5537 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus] (AD 200-245), Church historian.<br />
* 5529 BC<ref>Dr. Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref><ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus] (AD 115-181), Bishop of Antioch.<br />
* '''5509 BC''' - '''Byzantine Creation Era''' or''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople."'' ''' (finalized in 7th c. AD).<br />
* 5507 BC - ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale Chronicon Paschale]'' (ca. AD 630), Byzantine universal chronicle of the world.<br />
* 5500 BC - [[Hippolytus of Rome]]. (ca. AD 234), Presbyter, writer, martyr.<br />
* '''5493 BC - Alexandrian Era''' (AD 412).<br />
* 5199 BC - [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea]], Bishop of Caesarea and Church historian (AD 324).<br />
===Other Estimates===<br />
* 5199 BC - Mentioned in the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Roman Martyrology]''<ref>Roman Martyrology: Some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic Traditionalist Catholics] use the year 5199 BC, which is taken from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Martyrology Catholic martyrologies], and referred to as the true date of Creation in the "''Mystical City of God''," a 17th-century mystical work written by Maria de Agreda concerning creation and the life of the Virgin Mary. This year was also used earlier by the church historian [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Eusebius_of_Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea] in 324. (V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. 1958. pp.24-25).</ref>, published by the authority of Pope Gregory XIII in 1584, later confirmed in 1630 under Pope Urban VIII.<br />
* 4963 BC - According to the Benedictine Chronology<ref>Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine]. ''Art of Verifying Dates''. 4to, 1750. Printed again in folio in 1770.<br />
:Don [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Maur François d'Antine] was a Benedictine monk, born at Gourieux, in the diocese of Liege, in 1688. He died in 1746. In France the Benedictine Maurist Order presided over the publication of a remarkable series of source collections for both ecclesiastical and secular history, and sponsored the major studies of documentation and chronology of the period. (John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887. p.235.)<br><br />
:Chronology was made a new science by this order of scholars. The ''"[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Art_de_v%C3%A9rifier_les_dates Art de vérifer les dates]"'', by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurus_Dantine Dantine] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cl%C3%A9mencet Charles Clémencet], is regarded as the chief monument of French learning in the eighteenth century. (Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p.171.)</ref>, the Creation of Adam is given this date (AD 1750).<br />
* 4004 BC<ref>Anglican and Protestant: In the English-speaking world, one of the most well known estimates in modern times is that of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] (1581–1656), who proposed a date of Sunday, [[October 23]], 4004 BC, in the Julian calendar. He placed the beginning of this first day of creation, and hence the exact time of creation, at the previous nightfall. (See the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher chronology]). When Queen Victoria came to the English throne in AD 1837, 4004 B.C. was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of the world. (Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology]).</ref> - Anglican Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher]] (AD 1650).<br />
* 3952 BC - Venerable [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Bede Bede] (ca. AD 725), English Benedictine monk.<br />
* 3761 BC<ref>In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Jewish calendar was reformed. F. Rühl has shown that the adoption of this era must have taken place between the year 222, when Julius Africanus reports that the Jews still retained the eight-year lunar cycle (which is referred to in the pseudepigraphal ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Book_of_Enoch Book of Enoch]'' (74:13-16); see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch Calendar]), and 276, when Anatolius makes use of the nineteen year [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] to determine Easter after the manner of the Jews. It may be further conjectured that it was introduced about the year 240-241, the first year of the fifth thousand, according to this calculation, and that the tradition which associated its determination with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_of_Nehardea Mar Samuel] (d. about 250) is justified. (F. Rühl. ''Der Ursprung der Jüdischen Weltära, in Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft''. 1898. pp. 185,202.)</ref><ref>According to the popular tradition, the epoch that Hebrew calendar currently uses, the '''Hillel World Era''', beginning [[October 7]], 3761 BC, is traditionally regarded as having been calculated by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_II Hillel II] in the 4th century AD (ca. 358 AD), but did not become universal practice until the end of the Middle Ages. Scholars of this subject however believe that the evolution of the Hebrew calendar into its present form was actually a gradual process spanning several centuries from the first to about the eighth or ninth century AD.</ref> - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] [Judaism] - (ca. AD 222-276); or, (ca. AD 358 - ''Hillel World Era'').<br />
<br />
==Criticism==<br />
* According to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]: <br />
:Regarding questions about the scientific accuracy of the Genesis account of creation, and about various viewpoints concerning evolution, '''the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] has not dogmatized any particular view'''. What is dogmatically proclaimed is that the One Triune God created everything that exists, and that man was created in a unique way and is alone made ''in the image and likeness of God'' (Gn 1:26,27).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref><br />
:The opening words of the [[Nicene Creed]], the central doctrinal statement of Christianity, affirms that the One True God is the source of everything that exists, both physical and spiritual, both animate and inanimate: ''"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible."'' In addition, our regeneration in Christ and the resurrection of the dead are both often called the '''"New Creation"''' (2 Cor 5:17; Rev 21:1).<ref>''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.1778.</ref><br />
<br />
* According to Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley Harakas], the Bible's description of creation is not a "scientific account". It is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of the origins of mankind, though important, is really quite secondary in significance to the Church's message. The central image of Adam as God's image and likeness, who also represents fallen and sinful humanity, and the new Adam, [[Jesus Christ]], who is the "beginning", the first-born of the dead (Colossians 1:18) and the "first-fruits" of those who were dead, and are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20-23), is what is really important.<ref>Fr. Stanley S. Harakas. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988. pp.88,91.</ref> <br />
<br />
* Professor Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]), a nineteenth century historian, observed that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Biblical Chronologies] are uncertain due to discrepancies in the figures in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Genesis] and other methodological factors, accounting for hundreds of different chronologies being assigned by historians. In the case of the Fathers of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, who assigned 5509 B.C. as the date of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis creation of man], he writes that it was in response to the emperor's wishes to fix an era or convenient starting point for historical computation. Therefore it was a decision of mere historical convenience, not respecting either faith or morals.<ref>Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.</ref><br />
<br />
* It may also be noted historically that while Byzantine officials and chroniclers were disconcerted by the ambiguities among the different dating and recording systems in the earlier centuries, these mattered little to most people who marked time by the orderly progression of agricultual seasons and church festivals, and by the regularity of holidays, weather cycles, and years that revealed the Divine order (''Taxis'') underlying the world.<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.8</ref><br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, Christians began at an early period to adopt the Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world.<ref>Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_the_Creation_of_the_World Chronology - Era of the Creation of the World].</ref><br />
<br />
Currently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the Biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the Bible, with most of the difference arising from two versions of Genesis. The older dates of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Fathers Church Fathers] in the ''Byzantine Creation Era'' and in its precursor, the ''Alexandrian Era'', are based on the Greek [[Septuagint]]. The later dates of Archbishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ussher James Ussher] and the Hebrew Calendar are based on the Hebrew Masoretic text. <br />
<br />
The Fathers were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Old Testament chronology,<ref>Note that according to Dr. Wacholder, [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Josephus Josephus'] chronology for the antediluvian period (pre-flood) conforms with the LXX ([[Septuagint]]), but for the Noachites (post-flood) he used the Hebrew text. He chose this method to resolve the problem of the two chronological systems.</ref> and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.<ref>Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.602-603.</ref><br />
<br />
To this day, traditional Orthodox Christians will use the Byzantine calculation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etos_Kosmou Etos Kosmou] in conjunction with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini Anno Domini] (AD) year. Both dates appear on Orthodox cornerstones, ecclesiastical calendars and formal documents. The ecclesiastical new year is still observed on [[September 1]] (or on the Gregorian Calendar's [[September 14]] for those churches which follow the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]). September 2008 marked the beginning of the year 7517 of this era.<br />
<br />
==Appendix 1: Orthodox Observation of Time==<br />
'''Hours of the Liturgical Day'''<br />
In the Byzantine period the day was divided into two 12-hour cycles fixed by the rising and setting of the sun.<br />
:"Following Roman custom, the Byzantines began their calendrical day (''nychthemeron'') at midnight with the first hour of day (''hemera'') coming at dawn. The third hour marked midmorning, the sixth hour noon, and the ninth hour midafternoon. Evening (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Vespers hespera]]'') began at the 11th hour, and with sunset came the first hour of night (''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Compline apodeipnon]]''). The interval between sunset and sunrise (''nyx'') was similarly divided into 12 hours as well as the traditional "watches" (''vigiliae'') of Roman times."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3</ref><br />
'''Days of the Liturgical Week'''<br />
Dr. Marcus Rautman points out that the seven-day week was known throughout the ancient world. The Roman Calendar had assigned one of the planetary deities to each day of the week. The Byzantines naturally avoided using these Latin names with their pagan echoes. They began their week with the "[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Lord%27s_Day Lord's Day]" (Kyriake), followed by an orderly succession of numbered days (Deutera, Trite, Tetarte, and Pempte), a day of "preparation" (Paraskeve), and finally Sabatton.<br />
:"Each day was devoted to remembering one or more martyrs or saints, whose observed feast days gradually eclipsed traditional festivals. Kyriake was seen as both the first and eighth day of the week, in the same way that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] was the alpha and omega of the cosmos, existing both before and after time. The second day of the week recognized angels, "the secondary luminaries as the first reflections of the primal outpouring of light," just as the sun and the moon had been observed during the Roman week. [[Saint John the Baptist|John the Baptist]], the forerunner (Prodromos) of Christ, was honored on the third day. Both the second and third days were viewed as occasions for penitence. The fourth and sixth days were dedicated to the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Cross Cross] with holy songs sung in remembrance of the Crucifixion. The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] was honored on the fifth day of the week, while the seventh day was set aside for the martyrs of the church."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.5</ref><br />
<br />
==Appendix 2: Key Dates according to the Byzantine Era==<br />
* 1 AM (5509 BC) - [ Creation of the world].<br />
* 4755 AM (753 BC) - Rome was founded.<br />
* 4841 AM (667 BC) - City of Byzantium was founded.<br />
* ca. 5504 AM (4 BC) - Jesus of Nazareth was born.<br />
* ca. 5538 AM (AD 30) - Jesus Christ's crucifixion and resurrection.<br />
* 5838 AM (AD 330) - [[Constantinople]] becomes the new capital of the Roman Empire.<br />
* 5888 AM (AD 380) - Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire by decree of [[Theodosius I]].<br />
* 5903 AM (AD 395) - Death of Theodosius I divides the Roman Empire into East and West.<br />
* 6045 AM (AD 537) - Justinian I decrees that the indiction must be included when designating a Byzantine year. <br />
* 6118 AM (AD 610) - Eastern Roman Empire changed its official language from Latin to Greek.<br />
* 6200 AM (AD 692) - Quinisext Council; first known official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' for dating.<br />
* 6496 AM (AD 988) - Official use of the ''Byzantine Era'' by Basil II; [ Conversion of the Rus], ''Byzantine Era'' adopted in Russia.<br />
* 6562 AM (AD 1054) - [ Great Schism] occurs between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
* 6712 AM (AD 1204) - Sack of Constantinople by soldiers of the [[Fourth Crusade]]; Latin Empire of Constantinople was established.<br />
* 6769 AM (AD 1261) - Byzantine Empire is re-established; [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Double-headed_eagle Double-headed eagle] is adopted as the official flag of the Byzantine Empire by Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.<ref>Josh Fruhlinger. [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_byz.html Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Imperial Flag]. '''Flags of the World''', 27 January, 1999.</ref>.<br />
* 6961 AM (AD 1453) - [[Fall of Constantinople]] -- The final collapse of the Byzantine Empire. The civilization of Rome (in its most inclusive sense including both Ancient Rome and New Rome (Constantinople)) lasted a total of 2,206 years.<br />
* 7000 AM (AD 1492) - Millennialist movements in Moscow due to the end of the church calendar.<br />
* 7427-7430 AM (AD 1919-1922) [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_(1919-1922) Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922].<br />
* 7518 AM = (September 1, 2009 - August 31, 2010).<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<div><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External Links==<br />
===Wikipedia===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Mundi Anno Mundi].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis Book of Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_era Calendar era].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible Chronology of the Bible].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dating_Creation Dating Creation].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_nihilo Ex nihilo].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameron Hexameron].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar Julian calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar Lunisolar calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint Septuagint].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism Young Earth creationism].<br />
'''Principal Considerations for the Byzantine Calendar'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_according_to_Genesis Creation according to Genesis].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle_(calendar) Solar cycle (calendar)] (28-year solar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic_cycle Metonic cycle] (19 year lunar cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiction Indiction] (15 year indiction cycle).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computus Easter Computus].<br />
'''Other Judeo-Christian Eras'''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_calendar Coptic Calendar]. (Note that the '''"''Alexandrian Era''"''' (March 25, 5493 BC), is distinct from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", which is derived from the ancient [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_calendar Egyptian Calendar] and based on the ''' ''Era of the Martyrs'' '''(August 29, 284)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_calendar Enoch calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_calendar Ethiopian Calendar]. (Derived from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", and based on the ''' ''Incarnation Era'' ''' (August 29, AD 8)).<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_calendar#Epoch_year Hebrew calendar].<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussher_chronology Ussher_chronology].<br />
===Other External Links===<br />
'''In Greek'''<br />
* [http://el.orthodoxwiki.org/%CE%88%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85 Έτος Κόσμου].<br />
'''OrthodoxWiki'''<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_Calendar Church Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Julian_Calendar Julian Calendar]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Indiction Indiction]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Septuagint Septuagint]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Genesis Genesis]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Evolution Evolution]<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gaussian_Formulae Gaussian Formulae]<br />
'''Hebrew Calendar'''<br />
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=438&letter=E#1154 The Era of the Creation] at Jewish Encyclopedia. <br />
* [http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Fact-Archive.com<br />
* [http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Absolute Astronomy.<br />
* [http://www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar] by Karl Hagen (medievalist).<br />
'''Other'''<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Labyrinth/2398/bginfo/trade/time.html Byzantine ways of reckoning time]<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_Constantinople Era of Constantinople] at Classic Encyclopedia (''Based on the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911'').<br />
* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. Charles Ellis, University of Bristol. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.smso.net/Calendar_era#Christian_era Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era] at SMSO Encyclopedia (''Saudi Medical Site Online'').<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In, '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908<br />
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/chronology.html Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs].<br />
* Dr. Stephen C. Meyers. [http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodusdate.htm Biblical Archaeology: The Date of the Exodus According to Ancient Writers]. Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies (IBSS). Updated April 30, 2008.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Young_earth_creationism Young earth creationism] at CreationWiki.<br />
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Theory_of_evolution Theory of evolution] at CreationWiki.<br />
<br />
==Bibliography and Further Reading==<br />
===Primary Sources===<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doukas Doukas]. ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus George Synkellos]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra Ibn Ezra], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. (Vol.1 - Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus Julius Africanus]. ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niketas_Choniates]. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder Pliny the Elder]. ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny) Historia Naturalis]'', XVIII, 210.<br />
* St. [[Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''Volume VIII - Basil: Letters and Select Works'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.<br />
* St. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Hilary_of_Poitiers Hilary of Poitiers]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV.<br />
* ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/The_Rudder The Rudder] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated. <br> <br />
:Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Theophanes_the_Confessor Theophanes]. ''The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813''. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch Theophilus of Antioch]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).<br />
<br />
===Secondary Sources===<br />
* Anthony Bryer. ''“Chronology and Dating”''. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pnkxofhi4mQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies].''' Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31-37.<br />
* Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.<br />
* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology] at Classic Encyclopedia (''based on the 11th ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica, pub.1911'').<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451–481.<br />
* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography''. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.<br />
* Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC&printsec=frontcover Chronology of the Old Testament]''. Master Books, AZ, 1993. Repr. 2005. ''(supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).''<br />
* E.G. Richards. ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History''. Oxford University Press, 1998. <br />
* Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. <br />
* Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. <br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Seraphim_Rose Seraphim Rose]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000.<br />
* Fr. [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Stanley_S._Harakas Stanley S. Harakas]. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.<br />
* Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.<br />
* George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp.2–18.<br />
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <br />
* Jack Finegan. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible''. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. <br />
* K.A. Worp. ''[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/9250/1/5_039_134.pdf Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents]''. 1985. University of Amsterdam.<br />
* Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.<br />
* Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.<br />
* Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006.<br />
* Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). ''[http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]''. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.<br />
* Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3–8.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.<br />
* Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PVCUZ7BTD2gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enoch+74%22+AND+%22cycle%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity]''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (''Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission'').<br />
* Prof. Dr. William Adler. ''Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus''. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. <br />
* Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''"Era."'' '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]'''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].<br />
* Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. ''The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt''. Zutphen, 1978. <br />
* ''The [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Orthodox_Study_Bible Orthodox Study Bible]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. <br />
* V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.<br />
* Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.<br />
* Yiannis E. Meimaris. ''Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia''. Athens, 1992.<br />
'''19th Century and Earlier'''<br />
* John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887.<br />
* Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice S.S.]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886.<br />
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Pozna%C5%84ski Samuel Poznański]. ''Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar.'' in '''The Jewish Quarterly Review''', Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), pp. 152–161.<br />
* Sir [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Browne Thomas Browne]. ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo61.html Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 - Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical]''. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. pp. 321-330.<br />
* ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].'' (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.<br />
<br />
<br />
''This article incorporates text from [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Byzantine_Creation_Era Byzantine Creation Era] at [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki] under the terms of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Free Documentation License].'' <br />
<br />
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]<br />
[[Category:Timelines]]<br />
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Timeline_of_Orthodoxy_in_Greece&diff=38704Timeline of Orthodoxy in Greece2009-04-07T23:23:05Z<p>Angellight 888: /* Third Hellenic Republic (1974-Present) */ 2009</p>
<hr />
<div>This is a '''timeline of the presence of Orthodoxy in Greece'''. The history of [[Greece]] traditionally encompasses the study of the Greek people, the areas they ruled historically, as well as the territory now composing the modern state of Greece.<br />
<br />
Christianity was first brought to the geographical area corresponding to modern Greece by the [[Apostle Paul]], although the church’s apostolicity also rests upon [[St. Andrew]] who preached the gospel in Greece and suffered martyrdom in [[Patras]], the [[Apostle Titus]], Paul’s companion who preached the gospel in [[Crete]] where he became [[bishop]], Apostle Philip (of the Twelve), who according to the tradition, visited and preached in [[Athens]], Apostle [[Luke the Evangelist]] who was martyred in [[Thebes]], Lazarus of Bethany, Bishop of [[Kition]] in [[Cyprus]], and the [[Apostle John]] the Theologian who was exiled on the island of [[Patmos]] where he received the Book of Revelation recorded in the last book of the New Testament. In addition, the [[Theotokos]] is regarded as having visited the Holy Mountain ([[Mount Athos]]) in [[49]] AD according to tradition. Thus Greece became the first European area to accept the gospel of Jesus Christ. Towards the end of the 2nd century the early apostolic bishoprics had developed into metropolitan sees in the most important cities. Such were the sees of [[Thessaloniki]], [[Corinth]], Nicopolis, [[Philippi]] and [[Athens]]. <br />
<br />
By the 4th century almost the entire Balkan peninsula constituted the Exarchate of Illyricum which was under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome. Illyricum was assigned to the jurisdiction of the [[patriarch of Constantinople]] by the emperor in [[732]]. From then on the [[Church of Greece|Church in Greece]] remained under [[Constantinople]] till the fall of the Byzantine empire to the Turks in [[1453]]. As an integral part of the Ecumenical Patriarchate the church remained under its jurisdiction up to the time when Greece won her freedom from Turkish domination.<ref>[http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/regions/europe/greece/church-of-greece.html World Council of Churches: Church of Greece].</ref> During the Ottoman occupation up to 6,000 Greek clergymen, ca. 100 Bishops, and 11 Patriarchs knew the Ottoman sword.<ref>[[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens]]. ''[http://www.ecclesia.gr/english/archbishop/christodoulos_speeches.asp?cat_id=&id=641&what_main=3&what_sub=12&lang=en&archbishop_heading=Addresses/Speeches Address to the Conference organised by the Synodal Committee on European Issues, entitled “Islam: the extent of the problematics”].'' Holy Monastery of Penteli, Attica, 12/5/2007.</ref><br />
<br />
The Greek [[War of Independence]] of [[1821]]-[[1828|28]], while leading to the liberation of southern Greece from the Turkish yoke, created anomalies in ecclesiastical relations, and in 1850 the Endemousa Synod in Constantinople declared the [[Church of Greece]] autocephalous.<br />
<br />
In the twentieth century during much of the period of communism, the Church of Greece saw itself as a guardian of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodoxy]]. It cherishes its place as the cradle of the primitive church and the Greek clergy are still present in the historic places of Istanbul and Jerusalem, and Cyprus.<ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/ The Globe and Mail] (Canada's National Newspaper). ''"Orthodox Church at Crossroads."'' November 10, 1995. p.A14.</ref> The autocephalous Church of Greece is organised into 81 dioceses, however 35 of these are nominally under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople but are administered as part of the Church of Greece (except for the dioceses of [[Crete]], the [[Dodecanese]], and [[Mount Athos]] which are under the direct jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople). <br />
<br />
The [[Archbishop of Athens]] and All Greece presides over both a standing synod of twelve [[metropolitan]]s (six from the new territories and six from southern Greece), who participate in the synod in rotation and on an annual basis, and a synod of the hierarchy (in which all ruling metropolitans participate), which meets once a year. <br />
<br />
The population of Greece is 11.1 million (''UN, 2007''), 98% of which are Greek Orthodox (''CIA World Factbook'').<br />
<br />
== Apostolic era (33-100) ==<br />
*ca. 47-48 [[Saint Paul|Apostle Paul's]] mission to Cyprus.<br />
*ca. 49 Paul's mission to Philippi, [[Thessaloniki]] and [[Veria]].<br />
*49 Paul's mission to Athens.<br />
*ca. 51-52 Metropolis of Korinthos founded in its Apostolic during Paul's first mission to [[Corinth]]; Paul writes his two Epistles to the Thessalonians.<br />
*ca. 54 Paul writes his First Epistle to the Corinthians.<br />
*ca. 55 Paul revisits Corinth.<br />
*ca. 56 Paul revisits [[Macedonia]]; he writes his Second Epistle to the Corinthians.<br />
*ca. 61 Paul shipwrecked in [[Crete]].<br />
*62 Crucifixion of [[Saint Andrew|Apostle Andrew]] in [[Patra|Patras]]. <br />
*ca. 95 Apocalypse of John written on the island of [[Patmos]].<br />
*96 Martyrdom of [[Dionysius the Areopagite]] of the Seventy.<br />
*100 Death of [[Apostle John|St. John]] the Theologian in [[Ephesus]].<br />
<br />
== Ante-Nicene era (100-325) ==<br />
*ca. 100 During the second and third centuries, [[Greece]] was divided into provinces including [[Achaea prefecture|Achaea]], [[Macedonia]], and Moesia.<br />
*ca. 120 Martyrdom of Eleutherios and his mother Anthia.<br />
*124 Apostles Quadratus and Aristides present Christian apologies to Emperor Hadrian at Athens.<br />
*128 Aquila's Greek translation of the Old Testament.<br />
*ca. 130 Death of Apostle Quadratus, of the Seventy.<br />
*156 Martyrdom of [[Polycarp of Smyrna|Polycarp]] of [[Smyrna]].<br />
*180-192 Theodotion's Greek translation of the Old Testament.<br />
*193-211 Symmachus' Greek translation of the Old Testament. <br />
*202 Death of Great Martyr Charalampos, Bishop of Magnesia.<br />
*210 [[Hippolytus of Rome]], bishop and martyr and last of Greek-speaking fathers in Rome, writes ''Refutation of All Heresies'' (''Philosophumena''), and ''Apostolic Tradition''.<br />
*ca 250 Matrydom of Christopher of Lycia; martyrdom of Cyprian and Justina at Nicomedia.<br />
*ca. 251 Martyric death of Isidore of Chios under the persecutions of Decius.<br />
*270 Death of Gregory the Wonderworker, founder of the Church in Cappadocia.<br />
*286 Martyrs Timothy and Mavra.<br />
*302 20,000 Martyrs burned at [[Nicomedia]]. <br />
*303 Death of Great-Martyr Panteleimon and martyrdom of George the Trophy-bearer at Nicomedia.<br />
*304 Death of Virgin-Martyr Anysia of Thessaloniki.<br />
*306 Martyric death of [[Saint Demetrius|Demetrios]] of Thessaloniki in Thessaloniki.<br />
*306-37 Reign of Emperor [[Constantine the Great]]. <br />
*ca. 306 Death of Great-Martyr [[Saint Barbara|Barbara]] of Nicomedia; death of Bp. Parthenios of Lampsacus. <br />
*313 Edict of Milan issued by Constantine the Great and co-emperor Licinius, officially declaring religious freedom in the Roman Empire.<br />
*314 Council of Ancyra held.<br />
*316 Death of Blaise of Sebaste.<br />
*319 Matyrdom of Theodore the General (Theodore Stratelates), under Licinius.<br />
<br />
== Patriarchate of Rome Era (325-732) ==<br />
=== Nicene era (325-451) ===<br />
*325 [[First Council of Nicaea|First Ecumenical Council]] held in [[Nicea]], condemning Arianism, setting the Paschalion, and issuing the first version of the [[Nicene Creed]], also establishing the supremacy of honor of the Apostolic Sees as ''Rome'', followed by ''Alexandria'', ''Antioch'', and ''Jerusalem''.<br />
*330 [[Byzantium]] refounded as ''[[Constantinople]] / New Rome'', Christian capital of the Roman Empire, and is dedicated to the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Theotokos]] by Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine the Great]].<br />
*333 Constantine the Great commissions Eusebius of Caesarea to prepare 50 copies of the Bible for churches in the new capital. <br />
*335 Building of the Protaton church at Karyes (Athos) , dedicated to the [[Dormition of Theotokos|Dormition of the Virgin Mary]], oldest church on [[Mount Athos]].<br />
*ca. 330-337 Church of Panagia Ekatontapyliani - Hundred Doors ([[Paros]]) founded by [[St. Helen]], during her pilgrimage to the Holy Land.<br />
*337 Under [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine the Great]] Greece was part of the prefectures of [[Macedonia]] and [[Thrace]].<br />
*340-570 Constantinople overtakes Rome as the largest city in the world by population.<br />
*342 Death of [[Saint Nicholas|Nicholas]] of Myra.<br />
*348 Death of [[Saint Spyridon|Spyridon]] of Trimythous.<br />
*ca. 354 Emperor [[Constantius II]] sent the [[Arianism|Arian]] bishop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_the_Indian Theophilus "the Indian"] on mission to south Asia via Arabia where he is said to have converted the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom Himyarites] and built three churches in southwest Arabia; he is also said to have found Christians in India.<br />
*358 [[Basil the Great]] founds monastery of Annesos in [[Pontus]], the model for Eastern monasticism. <br />
*359 Council of Seleucia in the east and Council of Rimini in the west.<br />
*360 First church of [[Hagia Sophia]] (Constantinople) inaugurated by Emperor [[Constantius II]]. <br />
*364 Council of Laodicea held. <br />
*375 [[Basil the Great]] writes ''On the Holy Spirit'', confirming the divinity of the Holy Spirit.<br />
*377 [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] (Cyprus) writes ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panarion Panarion] (Πανάριον, "Medicine Chest"), also known as Adversus Haereses ("Against Heresies")'', listing 80 heresies, some of which are not described in any other surviving documents from the time . <br />
*378 Visigoths defeat Emperor [[Valens]] at the Battle of Adrianople, permanently weakening northern borders of the empire. <br />
*379 Death of Basil the Great; the [[Cappadocian Fathers]] [[Basil the Great]], [[Gregory the Theologian|Gregory of Nazianzus the Theologian]], and [[Gregory of Nyssa]] set their mark on all subsequent history of the Greek churches, through Basil's ''On the Holy Spirit'', and ''Rules''; Gregory of Nazianzus' ''Five Theological Orations''; and Gregory of Nyssa's polemical works against various heretical teachings. <br />
*380 Christianity established as the official faith of the Roman Empire by Emperor [[Theodosius the Great]].<br />
*381 [[First Council of Constantinople|Second Ecumenical Council]] held in Constantinople, condemning Macedonianism/Pneumatomachianism and Appollinarianism, declaring the divinity of the Holy Spirit, confirming the previous Ecumenical Council, and completing the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]].<br />
*ca. 383 First monastic institution established in Constantinople at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samatya Psamathia], outside the city.<br />
*386 Panagia Soumela Monastery founded in [[Trebizond]], Pontus, [[Asia Minor]], after [[Luke the Evangelist|Apostle Luke's]] Icon of the Mother of God (Theotokos) appears at Mt. Mela. <br />
*391 Death of [[Gregory the Theologian]]. <br />
*391-92 Closing of all non-Christian temples in the Empire; [[Theodosius I|Theodosius the Great]] ends pagan Eleusinian Mysteries by decree.<br />
*394 Epiphanius of [[Salamis (Cyprus)]] attacks teachings of Origen as heretical.<br />
*395 Death of [[Gregory of Nyssa]]; permanent division of Empire after the death of Emperor Theodosius the Great. <br />
*ca. 395 Theodosius I divided the prefecture of Macedonia into the provinces of Creta, Achaea, [[Thessalia]], [[Epirus]] Vetus, Epirus Nova, and Macedonia; the [[Aegean]] islands formed the province of Insulae in the prefecture of Asiana; the placing of the cincture (sash) of the Most Holy [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Theotokos]] in the Church of the Virgin in Halkoprateia-Constantinople (395-408). <br />
*398 [[John Chrysostom]] becomes Archbishop of Constantinople.<br />
*399 Death of [[Evagrius Ponticus]], the first monk to write extensively on the spiritual life, influencing his students [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladius Palladius] and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/John_Cassian John Cassian],[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_the_Confessor Maximus the Confessor], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadochos_of_Photiki Diadochus of Photike], [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria Isaac of Nineveh], [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Symeon_the_New_Theologian Symeon the New Theologian], and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gregory_Palamas Gregory Palamas], among others.<br />
*403 Synod of the Oak held near Chalcedon, deposing and exiling [[John Chrysostom]]. <br />
*407 Death of [[John Chrysostom]] in exile. <br />
*421 Emperor of the east [[Theodosius II]] declares war on Persia when Persia begins persecuting Christians; the persection lasts until 457.<br />
*425 University of Constantinople founded as the first university in the world.<br />
*426 [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Euthymius_the_Great Euthymius the Great] establishes [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Lavra lavra] in Palestinian desert, consecrated in 428 by Bp. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenal_of_Jerusalem Juvenal of Jerusalem] (Άγιος Ιουβενάλιος).<br />
*431 [[Council of Ephesus|Third Ecumenical Council]] held in Ephesus, condemning Nestorianism and Pelagianism, confirming the use of the term ''[[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Theotokos]]'' to refer to the Virgin Mary, and confirming autocephaly of [[Church of Cyprus]].<br />
*437 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Sleepers Seven Sleepers of Ephesus] awakened to prove resurrection of the dead.<br />
*438 Codex Theodosianus published; relics of [[John Chrysostom]] brought to Constantinople and buried in the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_the_Holy_Apostles_%28Constantinople%29 Church of the Holy Apostles].<br />
*440 Death of Alexios the Man of God, [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Fool-for-Christ Fool-for-Christ].<br />
*447 Earthquake in Constantinople, when a boy was lifted up to heaven and heard the Trisagion. <br />
*449 Robber Synod of Ephesus, presided over by Dioscorus of Alexandria, with an order from the emperor to acquit Eutyches the Monophysite.<br />
<br />
=== Early Byzantine era (451-843) ===<br />
*451 [[Council of Chalcedon|Fourth Ecumenical Council]] meets at Chalcedon, condemning Eutychianism and Monophysitism, affirming doctrine of two perfect and indivisible but distinct natures in Christ, and recognizing Church of Jerusalem as patriarchate.<br />
*452 Second finding of the Head of [[John the Forerunner]]. <br />
*457 First coronation of Byzantine Emperor by patriarch of Constantinople; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proterius_of_Alexandria Proterius of Alexandria] is lynched by an Alexandrian mob; rejecting the Christological definitions of [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedon]], the Egyptian or [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Alexandria_%28Coptic%29 Coptic church] goes its own way, becoming one of the Oriental Orthodox Churches. <br />
*458 Death of Bp. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoret Theodoret of Cyrrhus], influential author and theologian who played a pivotal role in many early Byzantine church controversies. <br />
*462 Indiction moved to September 1; Studion Monastery founded. <br />
*463 Death of Patapius of Thebes.<br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire 480AD.JPG|right|thumb|220px|Eastern Roman Empire ca.480, showing the extent of Koine Greek.]]<br />
*ca.471 Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople was first called ''"Oikoumenikos"'' (Ecumenical). <br />
*484 Acacian Schism.<br />
*493 Death of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Daniel_the_Stylite Daniel the Stylite] an ascetic who lived for 33 years on a pillar near the city of Constantinople.<br />
*ca. 500 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosimus Zosimus], pagan Greek historian writes ''Historia Nova ("New History")'', a history of the Roman Empire to 410 AD, with an anti-Christian view offering a different interpretation to church affairs than from Christian sources; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite's] writing corpus including the ''Divine Names'', ''Mystical Theology'', ''Celestial Hierarchy'', and ''Ecclesiastical Hierarchy'' influences the development of Byzantine mystical spirituality and hesychasm through [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Maximus_the_Confessor Maximus the Confessor], [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Symeon_the_New_Theologian Symeon the New Theologian], and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gregory_Palamas Gregory Palamas].<br />
*502 Start of Byzantine-Sassanid wars, lasting until 562. <br />
*518 Patriarch [[John of Constantinople|John II of Constantinople]] is addressed as ''"Oikoumenikos Patriarches"'' (Ecumenical Patriarch); the Byzantine government begins persecution of non-Chacedonians in the east, especially in Mesopotamia. <br />
*519 Eastern and Western churches reconciled with end of Acacian Schism. <br />
*520 [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Roman_the_Melodist Romanus the Melodist] the greatest hymnographer, develops the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Kontakion Kontakion], a chanted verse sermon, to perfection; influenced by [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Ephrem_the_Syrian Ephrem the Syrian], he in turn influences [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Ephrem_the_Syrian Andrew of Crete].<br />
*529 Emperor [[Justinian the Great]] closes the School of Athens, which [[Plato]] had founded in 387 BC.<br />
*529-534 Justinian the Great's ''[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Code_of_Justinian Corpus Juris Civilis]'' issued; Justinian's ''Novella 131'' formulated the proposed government of universal Christendom by five patriarchal sees under the auspices of a single universal empire ([http://orthodoxwiki.org/Pentarchy Pentarchy]).<br />
*532 [[Justinian the Great]] orders building of [[Hagia Sophia]] (Constantinople); <br />
*537 Construction of [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople completed; Justinian decrees that all dates must include the Indiction.<br />
*538 Emperor [[Justinian the Great]], via deportations and force, manages to get [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Pentarchy all five patriarchates] officially into communion.<br />
*ca. 540 Death of Osios [[David of Thessaloniki]].<br />
*540 Bulgar raids into Illyricum and northern Greece.<br />
*543 Doctrine of apokatastasis condemned by Synod of Constantinople; [[Justinian the Great]] sends missionaries to Nubia (the three kingdoms of Nobatia/Novatia, Alodia/Alwa, and Makuria).<br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire 550AD.JPG|right|thumb|220px|The Byzantine Empire during its greatest territorial extent under Justinian. ca.550.]]<br />
*544 According to tradition the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon_Not_Made_By_Hands Mandylion] (αχειροποίητα) of Edessa destroys Persian siege works.<br />
*553 [[Second Council of Constantinople|Fifth Ecumenical Council]] held in [[Constantinople]] in an attempt to reconcile Chalcedonians with non-Chalcedonians&mdash;the ''Three Chapters'' of Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and Ibas of Edessa are condemned for their Nestorianism, and Origen and his writings are also condemned. <br />
*553 Ostrogoth kingdom in Italy conquered by the Byzantine Empire after the Battle of Mons Lactarius.<br />
*556 Completion of [[Justinian the Great]]'s fortification [http://orthodoxwiki.org/St._Catherine%27s_Monastery_%28Sinai%29 monastery of St. Catherine in the Sinai]; a chapel and anchorites had already been there at least since the 4th century when [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Egeria Egeria] visited in ca. 385. <br />
*562 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus Isidorus of Miletus] completes repair on dome of [[Hagia Sophia]], now higher by 20 feet than the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthemius_of_Tralles Anthemian] original.<br />
*563 Re-consecration of [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople after its dome is rebuilt.<br />
*565-66 Completion of the mosaic of the [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Transfiguration Transfiguration] in apse of the Church of the Mother of God on Mt. Sinai.<br />
*565-78 The [[Cherubic Hymn]] (Cherubikon) was added to the [[Divine Liturgy]] by Emperor [[Justin II]].<br />
*566 Bp. Longinus sent from Constantinople to Nubia as missionary.<br />
*568 Exarchate of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Ravenna Ravenna] established, to 752, a Greek imperial outpost and place of contact with the Latin west.<br />
*575 The ''Chronographia (Χρονογραφία)'' of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Malalas John Malalas] in 18 books, chronicles the years from creation to 563 AD. <br />
*576 Dual hierarchy henceforth in Alexandria, [[Church of Alexandria|Chalcedonian (Greek)]] and [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Alexandria_%28Coptic%29 Monophysite (Coptic)].<br />
*577 Patr. [[John Scholasticus|John III Scholasticus]] is responible for the first collection of Canon Law, the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomocanon Nomocanon]'', of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. <br />
*580 Serious invasion of Slavs migrating into the Balkans and Greece; last recorded persecution of pagans in [[Byzantine Empire]]. <br />
*582 Persection of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Monophysitism Monophysites] renewed under emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]. <br />
*ca. 590 [[Parthenon]] in Athens converted into a Christian church dedicated to Agia Sophia.<br />
*594 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evagrius_Scholasticus Evagrius Scholasticus] writes ''Ecclesiastical History'', covering the years 431 to 594 AD.<br />
*586 St. [[Saint Demetrius|Demetrios of Thessaloniki]] saves Thessaloniki from Avar-Slav siege.<br />
*602 Final series of wars between Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Empire.<br />
*610 [[Heraclius]] changes official language of the Empire from Latin to Greek, already the ''lingua franca'' of the vast majority of the population.<br />
*612 Holy Sponge and Holy Lance brought to Constantinople from Palestine.<br />
*617 Persian Army conquers [[Chalkedon|Chalcedon]] after a long siege.<br />
*620 Slavs attack Thessaloniki.<br />
*626 Akathist Hymn to the Virgin Mary written, after Constantinople liberated from a siege of 80,000 Avars, Slavs and the Persian fleet. <br />
*627 Emperor Heraclius decisively defeats Sassanid Persians at Battle of Nineveh, recovering True Cross and breaking power of the Sassanid dynasty.<br />
*630 Second [[Elevation of the Holy Cross]], on [[March 21]], 630 AD, when Emperor Heraclius entered Jerusalem amidst great rejoicing, and together with Patriarch Zacharios (609-633), transferred the Cross of Christ with great solemnity into the temple of the Resurrection; it is the first and only time a Byzantine emperor set foot in the Holy Land.<br />
*632 Christian influences on Islamic practice include veiling of women, hospitality for monastic travellers, prostrations, facing east for prayer, fixed hours for daily office of prayer, ritual ablutions before worship.<br />
*633 Death of Patr. [[Modestus of Jerusalem]], who had restored many buildings after the Persian sack of 614, including the rotunda of the Anastasis. <br />
*634 Emperor Heraclius issues edict ordering all Jews to be baptized; many Jews flee to protection of Persians or Muslim Arabs.<br />
*639 Death of Patr. [[Sophronius I of Jerusalem]]; his poetry and prayers become part of the Liturgy, including the Troparia of the Royal Hours of Holy Friday and on the eves of the Nativity and [[Holy Theophany|Theophany]], and the main prayer of Great Blessing of Water on [[Holy Theophany|Epiphany]].<br />
*646 Alexandria recaptured by Muslim Arabs after a Byzantine attempt to retake Egypt fails, ending nearly ten centuries of Greco-Roman civilization in Egypt; the monophysite Coptic patriarch Benjamin I of Alexandria and his followers willingly accept Arab rule, preferring it to the Byzantines; [[Maximus the Confessor]] takes lead in opposing Monothelitism. <br />
*648 Pope Theodore I of Rome excommunicates patriarch [[Paul II of Constantinople]].<br />
*649 Arabs invade and conquer Cyprus. <br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire 650AD.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Byzantine Empire by 650; by this year it lost all of its southern provinces except the Exarchate of Carthage.]] <br />
*650 The Patriarchate of Constantinople counted 32 metropoles, or capitals of ecclesiastical provinces, 1 autocephalous metropolis, 34 autocephalous archbishoprics, and 352 bishoprics -- a grand total of 419 dioceses. <br />
*654 Invasion of [[Rhodes]] by Arabs. <br />
*662 [[Parthenon]] in Athens rededicated in honour of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Theotokos]] (Mother of God) as "Panagia Atheniotissa" (Panagia of Athens); death of Maximus the Confessor.<br />
*669-78 First Arab siege of Constantinople; at Battle of Syllaeum Arab fleet destroyed by Byzantines through use of [[Greek fire|Greek Fire]], ending immediate Arab threat to eastern Europe.<br />
*680-681 [[Third Council of Constantinople|Sixth Ecumenical Council]] held in [[Constantinople]], condemning Monothelitism and affirming Christology of Maximus the Confessor, affirming that Christ has both a human will and a divine will; Patr. [[Sergius I of Constantinople|Sergius of Constantinople]] and Pope Honorius of Rome are both explicitly anathematized for their support of Monothelitism. <br />
*685 First monastics come to [[Mount Athos]]; emperor [[Justinian II]] is the first emperor to have the figure of the Lord Jesus Christ stamped on a coin.<br />
*688 Emperor [[Justinian II]] and Caliph al-Malik sign treaty neutralizing [[Cyprus]]. <br />
*692 The "Pentarchy" form of government of universal Christendom by five patriarchal sees received formal ecclesiastical sanction at the Council in Trullo, held in Constantinople, which ranked the five sees as ''Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch'', and ''Jerusalem'';<br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire 717AD themes.JPG|right|thumb|220px|The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Leo III, ca.717. Striped area is land raided by the Arabs.]]<br />
*705 Long period of fighting begins between [[Trapezus|Trebizond]] in eastern [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] and the Arabs. <br />
*706 Greek replaced by Arabic as administrative language in Egypt. <br />
*707 Byzantines lose Balearic Islands to Moors; <br />
*710 Pope Constantine of Rome makes last papal visit to Constantinople before 1967. <br />
*712 Death of [[Andrew of Crete]].<br />
*717-18 Second Arab siege of Constantinople.<br />
*720 Martyrdom of Nicholas the New of Vounina.<br />
*726 Iconoclast Emperor [[Leo the Isaurian]] starts campaign against icons.<br />
<br />
== Patriarchate of Constantinople Era (732-1850) ==<br />
*732-33 Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III|Leo the Isaurian]] transfers Southern Italy (Sicily and Calabria), Greece, and the Aegean from the jurisdiction of the Pope to that of the [[List of Constantinople patriarchs|Ecumenical Patriarch]] in response to Pope St. Gregory III of Rome's support of a revolt in Italy against [[Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]], adding to the Patriarchate about 100 bishoprics; the Iconoclast emperors took away from the Patriarch of Antioch 24 episcopal sees of Byzantine Isauria, on the plea that he was a subject of the Arab caliphs; the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople became co-extensive with the limits of the [[Byzantine Empire]].<br />
*734 Death of Peter the Athonite, commonly regarded as one of the first hermits of [[Mount Athos]].<br />
*739 Emperor [[Leo III]] (717-41) publishes his ''Ecloga'', designed to introduce Christian principle into law; Byzantine forces defeat Umayyad invasion of Asia Minor at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Akroinon Battle of Akroinon].<br />
*746 Byzantine forces regain [[Cyprus]] from the Arabs. <br />
*754 Iconoclastic Council held in Constantinople under the authority of Emperor [[Constantine V]] Copronymus, condemning icons and declaring itself to be the Seventh Ecumenical Council; Constantine begins dissolution of the monasteries.<br />
*787 [[Second Council of Nicaea|Seventh Ecumenical Council]] held in [[Nicea]], condemning [[iconoclasm]] and affirming veneration of icons.<br />
*789 Death of Philaret the Merciful.<br />
*803 Death of [[Irene the Athenian]], wife of Byzantine Emperor [[Leo IV]]; St. Luke's icon brought to [[Agiassos]] in [[Mytilene]].<br />
*814 Bulgarians lay siege to Constantinople; conflict erupts between Emperor [[Leo V]] and Patr. [[Saint Nicephorus|Nicephorus I]] of Constantinople on the subject of [[iconoclasm]]; Leo deposes Nicephorus, Nicephorus excommunicates Leo. <br />
*824 Byzantine Crete falls to Arab insurgents fleeing from the Umayyad Emir of Cordoba Al-Hakam I, establishing an emirate on the island until the Byzantine reconquest in 960. <br />
*828 Death of Patr. [[Saint Nicephorus|Nicephorus I]] of Constantinople.<br />
*ca. 829-842 Icon of the Panagia Portaitissa appears on [[Mount Athos]] near Iviron Monastery. <br />
*836 Death of Theodore the Studite.<br />
*838 Caliph al-Mu'tasim captures and destroys Ammoria in [[Anatolia]]. <br />
*ca. 839 First Rus'-Byzantine War, where the Rus attacked [[Propontis]] (probably aiming for Constantinople) before turning east and raiding Paphlagonia.<br />
*840 Panagia Proussiotissa icon found near [[Karpenisi]].<br />
<br />
=== Byzantine Imperial era (843-1204)===<br />
*843 Empress Theodora secures return of icon-worship with [[Triumph of Orthodoxy]] occuring on first Sunday of [[Great Lent]], restoring icons to churches.<br />
*845 42 Martyrs of Ammoria in Phrygia taken as hostages from Ammoria to Samarra (in Iraq) and executed there.<br />
*850 Third Finding of the Head of [[Saint John the Baptist|St. John the Forerunner]].<br />
*858 [[Photius the Great]] becomes patriarch of Constantinople. <br />
*860 Second Rus-Byzantine War, a naval raid and the first siege of Constantinople by the Rus. <br />
*ca. 860 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Rus%27_Khaganate Christianization of the Rus' Khaganate]. <br />
*861 [[Saint Cyril|Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]] of [[Thessaloniki]] depart from Constantinople to missionize the Slavs; Council of Constantinople attended by 318 fathers and presided over by papal legates confirms Photius the Great as patriarch and passes 17 canons.<br />
*864 Baptism of Prince Boris of Bulgaria; Synaxis of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Theotokos]] in Miasena in memory of the return of her icon. <br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire 867AD.JPG|right|thumb|220px|Byzantine Empire, ca. 867 AD.]]<br />
*867 Council in Constantinople held, presided over by [[Photius I of Constantinople|Photius the Great]], which anathematizes Pope Nicholas I of Rome for his attacks on work of Greek missionaries in Bulgaria and use by papal missionaries of [[Filioque]]; Pope Nicholas dies before hearing news of excommunication; [[Basil I|Basil the Macedonian]] has Emperor [[Michael III]] murdered and usurps Imperial throne, reinstating [[Ignatius I of Constantinople|Ignatius]] as patriarch of Constantinople. <br />
*867 Death of [[Kassiani]] the Hymnographer, Greek-Byzantine poet and hymnographer, who composed the ''Hymn of Kassiani'', chanted during Holy Week on Holy Wednesday. <br />
*869-870 Robber Council of 869-870 held, deposing [[Photius I of Constantinople|Photius the Great]] from the Constantinopolitan see and putting the rival claimant [[Ignatius I of Constantinople|Ignatius]] on the throne, declaring itself to be the "Eighth Ecumenical Council." <br />
*870 Conversion of Serbia; Malta conquered from the Byzantines by the Arabs.<br />
*874 Translation of relics of [[Saint Nicephorus|Nicephorus the Confessor]], interred in the Church of the Holy Apostles (Constantinople). <br />
*877 Death of Ignatius I of Constantinople, who appoints [[Photius the Great]] to succeed him. <br />
*877 Arab Muslims conquer all of Sicily from Byzantium and make Palermo their capital.<br />
*879-880 [[Fourth Council of Constantinople|Eighth Ecumenical Council]] held in Constantinople attended by 383 fathers passing 3 canons, confirms Photius the Great as [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], anathematizes additions to the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]], and declares that the prerogatives and jurisdiction of the Roman pope and the Constantinopolitan patriarch are essentially equal; the council is reluctantly accepted by Pope John VIII of Rome. <br />
*881 Death of Theoktiste of [[Lesbos]].<br />
*885 [[Mount Athos]] gains political autonomy, as Emperor [[Basil I|Basil]] lays down the boundaries of the monastic republic; death of Methodius.<br />
*892 Death of Theodora the Myrrh-gusher of Thessaloniki.<br />
*902 Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, is captured by the Aghlabid Arabs.<br />
*904 Thessaloniki sacked and pillaged by Saracen pirates under Leo of Tripoli, a Greek pirate serving Saracen interests.<br />
*907 Third Rus-Byzantine War, a naval raid of Constantinople (''or Tsargrad in Old Slavonic'') led by Varangian Prince Oleg of Novgorod, which was relieved by peace negotiations.<br />
*911 "Holy Protection of the Virgin Mary"; Russian envoys visit Constantinople to ratify a treaty, sent by Oleg, Grand Prince of Rus'. <br />
*912 Nicholas I Mysticus becomes Patriarch of Constantinople. <br />
*921 Death of Irene Chrysovalantou.<br />
*925 Death of Peter of Argos.<br />
*941 Fourth Rus-Byzantine War. <br />
*944 City of Edessa recovered by Byzantine army, including Icon Not Made By Hands <br />
*953 Monastery of Hosios Loukas founded by St. Luke the Younger near Stiris (Thebes) in Greece.<br />
*957 Olga of Kiev baptized in Constantinople.<br />
*960 Emperor [[Nicephorus II Phocas]] re-captures Crete for the Byzantines.<br />
*961 Founding of Agia Lavra monastery in Kalavryta, Peloponesse, (the symbolic birth-place of modern Greece in 1821).<br />
*963 Athanasius of Athos establishes first major monastery on Mount Athos, the Great Lavra (Athos); founding of Philosophou Monastery in Dimitsana, Peloponesse (Metropolis of Gortyna and Megalopolis).<br />
*965 Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas gains Cyprus completely for the Byzantines.<br />
*968-71 Fifth Rus-Byzantine War, resulting in a Byzantine victory over the coalition of Rus', Pechenegs, Magyars, and Bulgarians in the Battle of Arcadiopolis, and the defeat of Sviatoslav of Kiev by John I Tzimiskes. <br />
*969 Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas captures Antioch and Aleppo from Arabs. <br />
*972 Emperor [[John I Tzimiskes]] grants Mount Athos its first charter (Typikon). <br />
*975 Emperor John I Tzimiskes in a Syrian campaign takes Emesa, Baalbek, Damascus, Tiberias, Nazareth, Caesarea, Sidon, Beirut, Byblos and Tripoli, but fails to take Jerusalem. <br />
*980 Revelation of the ''Axion Estin'' (the hymn "It Is Truly Meet"), with the appearance of the Archangel Gabriel to a monk on Mount Athos.<br />
*987 Sixth Rus-Byzantine War, where Vladimir of Kiev dispatches troops to the Byzantine Empire to assist Emperor [[Basil II]] with an internal revolt, agreeing to accept Orthodox Christianity as his religion and bring his people to the new faith. <br />
*988 Baptism of Rus' begins with the conversion of Vladimir of Kiev who is baptized at Chersonesos, the birthplace of the Russian and Ukrainian Orthodox churches; Vladimir marries Anna, sister of Byzantine emperor Basil II. <br />
*11th c. Kaisariani Monastery (Athens) is founded on the slopes of [[Mount Hymettos]], one of the oldest and most important monasteries in [[Attica]]; death Theodora of Vasta. <br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire 1025AD.JPG|right|thumb|220px|The Byzantine Empire under Basil II - ca. 1025.]]<br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire 1045AD themes.JPG|right|thumb|220px|The Byzantine Empire and its themata in 1045. At this point, the Empire was the most powerful state in the Mediterranean.]]<br />
*1009 Patr. Sergius II of Constantinople removes name of Pope Sergius IV of Rome from diptychs of Constantinople, because the pope had written a letter to the patriarch including the Filioque. <br />
*1022 Death of Symeon the New Theologian.<br />
*1025 Greece is divided into ''themes'' including Crete, the Peloponnese, Hellas, Nicopolis, [[Larissa]], [[Cephalonia]], Thessalonica, the [[Cyclades]] and the Aegean.<br />
*1034 Patriarch Alexius I Studites writes the first complete ''Studite Typikon,'' for a monastery he established near Constantinople; this was the Typikon introduced into the Rus' lands by Theodosius of the Kiev Caves. <br />
*1042 Founding of Nea Moni Monastery on Chios.<br />
*1043 University of Constantinople is re-organized under Michael Psellos.<br />
*1053 Death of Lazarus the Wonder-worker of Mount Galesius near Ephesus.<br />
*1054 The [[Great Schism]] between Orthodox East and Latin West.<br />
*1068 '''By the time of the arrival of the first Seljuk Turks to Anatolia, the religious war between Byzantium and Islam had run a course of four centuries.''' <br />
*1071 Seljuk Turks defeat Byzantines at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], beginning Islamification of Asia Minor; Norman princes led by Robert Guiscard capture Bari, the last Byzantine stronghold in Italy, bringing to an end over five centuries of Byzantine rule in the south. <br />
*ca. 1071-1176 Byzantine epic poem [[Digenis Akritas|"Digenes Akritas"]] is written, set in the ninth and tenth centuries, inspired by the almost continuous state of warfare with the Arabs in eastern Asia Minor, presents a comprehensive picture of the intense frontier life of the Akrites, the border guards of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. <br />
*1073 Seljuk Turks conquer Ankara. <br />
*1077 Seljuks capture Nicea. <br />
*1087 Translation of the relics of Nicholas of Myra from Myra to Bari.<br />
*1083 Metropolis of Paronaxia separates from the Metropolis of Rhodes.<br />
*1088-93 Emperor Alexios Komnenos I gave the island of Patmos to Blessed Christodoulos of Patmos to develop as an independent monastic state; founding of monastery of Apostle John the Theologian on Patmos.<br />
*1093 Death of Christodoulos the Wonderworker of Patmos. <br />
*1118-1137 Imperial [http://www.byzantium1200.com/pantocra.html monastery of Christ Pantocrator] founded.<br />
*1127-1145 Constantinople largest city in the world by population.<br />
*1147 Roger II of Sicily takes [[Corfu]] from the Byzantine Empire, and pillages Corinth, Athens and Thebes. <br />
*1176 Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm defeats Byzantine Empire in the Battle of Myriokephalon, marking end of Byzantine attempts to recover Anatolian plateau.<br />
*1198-1571 Church of Cyprus is subordinated to a Latin Hierarchy established by the Crusaders.<br />
*12th c. Skete life begins in Meteora.<br />
<br />
=== Latin Occupation (1204-1456)===<br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire - Frangokratia 1204AD.JPG|right|thumb|220px|The beginning of ''Frangokratia'': the division of the Byzantine Empire after the Fourth Crusade.]]<br />
*1204 [[Fourth Crusade]] sacks Constantinople, laying waste to the city and stealing many relics and other items; [[Great Schism]] generally regarded as having been completed by this act; Venetians use the imperial [http://www.byzantium1200.com/pantocra.html monastery of Christ Pantocrator] as their headquardters in Constantinople. <br />
*1204 Latin Occupation of mainland Greece under Franks and Venetians: the Latin Empire of Constantinople, Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica, the Principality of Achaea, and the Duchy of Athens; The Venetians controlled the Duchy of the Archipelago in the Aegean. <br />
*1205 Latins annex Athens and convert the Parthenon into a Roman Catholic Church - ''Santa Maria di Athene'', later ''Notre Dame d'Athene''.<br />
*1211 Venetian crusaders conquer Byzantine Crete, retaining it until ousted by Ottoman Turks in 1669.<br />
*1224 The Byzantines recover Thessaloniki and surrounding area, liberated by the Greek ruler of Epirus Theodore Ducas Comnenus.<br />
*1235 St. Olympiada and nuns martyred by pirates on Mytilene of Lesbos.<br />
*1249 Mystras citadel built by Franks in the Peloponnese.<br />
*1258 [[Michael VIII Palaiologus]] seizes the throne of the [[Nicaean Empire]], founding the last Roman (Byzantine) dynasty, beginning reconquest of Greek peninsula from Latins.<br />
*1259 Byzantines defeat Latin Principality of Achaea at the Battle of Pelagonia, marking the beginning of the Byzantine recovery of Greece. <br />
*ca. 1259-80 Martyrdom by Latins of monks of Iviron Monastery (Athos).<br />
*1261 End of Latin occupation of Constantinople and restoration of Orthodox patriarchs; Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos makes [[Mystras]] seat of the new Despotate of Morea, where a Byzantine renaissance occurred. <br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire 1263AD.JPG|right|thumb|220px|Eastern Mediterranean ca. 1263AD.]]<br />
*1265-1310 Arsenite Schism of Constantinople, beginning when Patr. Arsenius Autoreianos excommunicated emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. <br />
*1274 Orthodox attending the Second Council of Lyons, accept supremacy of Rome and filioque clause.<br />
*1275 Unionist Patr. of Constantinople John XI Beccus elected to replace Patr. Joseph I Galesiotes, who opposed Council of Lyons.<br />
*1275 Persecution of Athonite monks by Emp. Michael VIII and Patr. John XI Beccus; death of 26 martyrs of Zographou monastery on Mount Athos, martyred by the Latins.<br />
*1281 Pope Martin IV authorizes a Crusade against the newly re-established Byzantine Empire in Constantinople, excommunicating Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos and the Greeks and renouncing the union of 1274; French and Venetian expeditions set out toward Constantinople but are forced to turn back in the following year due to the Sicilian Vespers.<br />
*1283 Accommodation with Rome officially repudiated.<br />
*1287 Last record of Western Rite Monastery of Amalfion on Mount Athos.<br />
*14th c. "Golden Age" of Thessaloniki in both literature and art, many churches and monasteries built.<br />
*1300-1400 The ''"Chronicle of Morea"'' (Το χρονικό του Μορέως) narrates events of the establishment of feudalism in mainland Greece, mainly in the Morea/Peloponnese, by the Franks following the [[Fourth Crusade]], covering a period from 1204 to 1292.<br />
*1309 Rhodes falls to the Knights of St. John, who establish their headquarters there, renaming themselves the "Knights of Rhodes".<br />
*1310 Arsenite Schism of Constantinople is brought to an end by the reconciliation of the Arsenites to the Josephites.<br />
*1326 The city of Prusa (Bursa) in Asia Minor falls to the Ottoman Turks after a nine-year siege.<br />
*1331 The city of Nicaea, capital of the Empire only 100 years previously, falls to the Ottoman Turks.<br />
*1336 [[Meteora]] in Greece are established as a center of Orthodox monasticism.<br />
*1337 Nicomedia captured by Ottoman Turks.<br />
*1338 Gregory Palamas writes ''Triads in defense of the Holy Hesychasts'', defending the Orthodox practice of Hesychast spirituality and the use of the Jesus Prayer.<br />
*1341-47 Byzantine civil war between [[John VI Cantacuzenus]] (1347–54) and [[John V Palaeologus]] (1341–91). <br />
*1341-51 Three sessions of the Ninth Ecumenical Council held in Constantinople, affirming hesychastic theology of Gregory Palamas and condemning rationalistic philosophy of Barlaam of Calabria. <br />
*1354 Ottoman Turks make first settlement in Europe at Gallipoli. <br />
*1359 Death of Gregory Palamas.<br />
*1360 Death of John Koukouzelis the Hymnographer.<br />
*1365 Ottoman Turks made Adrianople their capital.<br />
*1382 Founding of the Great Meteora Monastery.<br />
*1390 Ottomans take [[Philadelphia]], last significant Byzantine enclave in Anatolia. <br />
*1391-98 Ottoman Turks unsuccessfully besiege Constantinople for the first time. <br />
[[Image:ByzantineEmpire 1450AD.JPG|right|thumb|220px|Eastern Mediterranean ca.1450 AD.]]<br />
*1422 Second unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Constantinople. <br />
*1426 Death of New Martyr Ephraim of Nea Makri.<br />
*1429 The Turks capture Thessaloniki.<br />
*1430 The monks of Mount Athos submit to Sultan Murad II and keep their autonomy.<br />
*1438 Council of Florence unsuccessfully tries to unit Greek East and Latin West.<br />
*1450 Death of ''Empress Helena Palaeologus'' (St. Ipomoni of Loutraki).<br />
*1452 Unification of Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches in Hagia Sophia on West's terms, when Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, under pressure from Rome, allows the union to be proclaimed. <br />
*1453 Constantinople falls to invasion of the Ottoman Turks, ending Roman Empire; Hagia Sophia turned into a mosque; martyrdom of Constantine XI Palaiologos, last of the Byzantine Emperors; many Greek scholars escape to the West with books that become translated into Latin, triggering the Renaissance; beginning of the lamentation folk songs known as ''"Moirologia"'', or dirges (Byzantine secular music).<br />
<br />
=== Ottoman Turkish Occupation (1456-1821) ===<br />
*1456 Turkish Occupation of Greece.<br />
*1456-1587 Byzantine [[Church of Theotokos Pammakaristos]] became the seat of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]].<br />
*1460 [[Parthenon]] Cathedral dedicated to the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mother of God]] is turned into a mosque.<br />
*1462 Wonderworking icon of the Archangel Michael of Mantamados is created; Matrona of Chios reposes October 22.<br />
*1463 Martyric death of Raphael, Nicholas and Irene on Mytilene (Lesvos).<br />
*1472 Decrees of the Council of Ferrara-Florence repudiated by Patriarchate of Contantinople.<br />
*1511 Death of Joseph the Sanctified of Crete.<br />
*1530 Mother of God restores sight to blind youth through the Cassiope icon of Corfu.<br />
*1546 New Martyr John of Ioannina.<br />
*1554 New Martyr Nicholas of Psari in Corinth.<br />
*1556 Death of Maximos the Greek.<br />
*1556-65 The Patriarchal School of Joasaph II is initially established in Constantinople, the forerunner of the ''[[Great School of the Nation]] (I Megali tou Genous Sxoli / Η Μεγάλη του Γένους Σχολή)''. <br />
*1559 Death of Iconographer Theophanes the Cretan.<br />
*1571 Restoration of Church of Cyprus to Orthodox rule.<br />
*1573-81 Correspondence between Patriarch Jeremias II and the Lutheran professors at Tubingen.<br />
*1576 Pope Gregory XIII establishes Pontifical Greek College of St. Athanasius (popularly known as the 'Greek College') in Rome, which he charged with educating Italo-Byzantine clerics. <br />
*1579 Death of Gerasimos of Cephalonia.<br />
*1583 Sigillion of 1583 issued against Gregorian Calendar by council convened in Constantinople. <br />
*1587-Present. The relatively modest [[Church of St George, Istanbul|Church of St George]] in the Phanar district of Istanbul becomes the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. <br />
*1589 Death of Philothei of Athens.<br />
*1590 Death of Timothy of Penteli (Athens).<br />
*1596 Death of Nilus the Myrrh-gusher of Mt. Athos.<br />
*1601 New Hieromartyr Seraphim, Bishop of Phanarion and Neokhorion.<br />
*1622 Death of Dionysius of Zakynthos (December 17).<br />
*1625 The Patriarchal School (''[[Great School of the Nation]]'') opened again under the direction of Theofilos Korydaleas having many students, however Korydaleas' liberal ideas caused the school's closure; ''Confession of Faith'' by Metrophanes Kritopoulos written. <br />
*1650-1700 Ottoman Constantinople is largest city in the world by population. <br />
*1657 New Hieromartyr [[Parthenius III of Constantinople|Parthenius III]], Patriarch of Constantinople.<br />
*1662 The Patriarchal School (''[[Great School of the Nation]]'') acquired permanent income, a building and remarkable teachers, among them Alexandros Mavrokordatos who bore the title Confidant. <br />
*1669 Greek island of Crete taken by Ottoman Empire from Venetians. <br />
*1677 Bishop Henry Compton of London builds church for the Greeks in London.<br />
*1682 Greek church in London closed.<br />
*1684 New Hieromartyr Zacharias, Bishop of Corinth.<br />
*1687 Parthenon devastated by Venetian shelling.<br />
*1694 Plan for Worcester College, Oxford (then Gloucester Hall) to become a college for the Greeks.<br />
*1695 New Hieromartyr Romanos of Diminitzas, Lacedemonia.<br />
*1713 Theological School of Patmos founded.<br />
*1716 Miracle of St. [[Saint Spyridon|Spyridon of Trimythous]], who saves [[Corfu]] from Turkish invasion.<br />
*1720 Monastery of the Life-Giving Spring (Poros) founded.<br />
*1728 The [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] formally replaced the ''[[Byzantine_Creation_Era|Creation Era]]'' (AM) calendar, in use for over 1000 years, with the ''Christian Era'' (AD).<br />
*1730 Death of John the Russian.<br />
*1735 Death of Athanasius the New, Wonderworker of Christianopolis.<br />
*1740 Miracle performed by the glorious Prophet and Forerunner John the Baptist, on the island of Chios.<br />
*1743 New Hieromartyr Anastasios of Ioannina.<br />
*1749 Athonite Ecclesiastical Academy ("Athonite School") is founded on [[Mount Athos]] by the brethren of the Monastery of [[Vatopedi|Vatopedion]].<br />
*1751 New Virgin Martyr Kyranna of Thessalonica.<br />
*1753-59 Eminent theologian and scholar [[Eugenios Voulgaris]] heads the ''Athonite School'', envisaging a revivial and upgrading of learning within the Orthodox Church through substantial training in the classics combined with an exposure to modern European philosophy.<br />
*1754 Hesychast Renaissance begins with the Kollyvades Movement. <br />
*1756 ''Sigillion of 1756'' issued against the Gregorian Calendar by Patr. Cyril V of Constantinople. <br />
*1759 School on Mount Athos forced to close down.<br />
*1767 Community of Orthodox Greeks establishes itself in New Smyrna, Florida.<br />
*1770 Cretan insurrection against the Ottomans led by Ioannis Daskalogiannis of the Sfakia region is subjugated; Hieromartyr George of Neapolis. <br />
*1779 Death of [[Saint Kosmas Aitolos]].<br />
*1782 First publication of ''Philokalia'' on [[Mount Athos]]; New Martyr Zacharias of Patra in Morea.<br />
*1793 New Martyr Polydorus of Cyprus.<br />
*1794 New Martyr Alexander the former Dervish.<br />
*1795 New Martyr Theodora of Byzantium (Metropolis of Mytiline).<br />
*1796 Nicodemus the Hagiorite publishes ''Unseen Warfare'' in Venice.<br />
*1798 Patriarch Anthimios of Jerusalem contended that the Ottoman Empire was part of the Divine Dispensation granted by God to protect Orthodoxy from the taint of Roman Catholicism and of Western Secularism and Irreligion.<br />
*1800 ''The Rudder'' published and printed in Athens.<br />
*1802 New Martyr Luke of Mytilene.<br />
*1805 Death of Makarios of Corinth, a central figure in the Kollyvades Movement.<br />
*1808 New Hieromartyr Nicetas of Serres.<br />
*1809 Death of Nicodemus of the [[Mount Athos|Holy Mountain]] the "Hagiorite"; Hieromartyr Nicetas the Hagiorite.<br />
*1814 Martyrdom of Euthymius and Ignatius of [[Mount Athos]].<br />
*1816 Martyrdom of Acacius of Athos. <br />
*1819 Council at Constantinople endorses views of Kollyvades fathers.<br />
<br />
=== Greek War of Independence (1821-1829) ===<br />
*1821 Greek [[War of Independence]] begins as Metr. [[Bishop Germanos of Patra|Germanos of Patra]] declares Greek independence on Day of [[Annunciation of Theotokos|Annunciation]] ([[March 25]]), also [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Kyriopascha Kyriopascha], at the Monastery of [[Agia Lavra]], Peloponessos; martyrdom of Patr. [[Patriarch Gregory V|Gregory V of Constantinople]], Abp. [[Archbishop Kyprianos of Cyprus|Kyprianos of Cyprus]], and Abp. [[Gerasimos of Crete]] in retaliation; Former Ecumenical Patr. Cyril VI of Constantinople is hanged at the gate of [[Adrianople|Adrianople's]] cathedral; Metropolitans Gregorios of Derkon, Dorotheos of Adrianople, Ioannikios of Tyrnavos, and Joseph of Thessaloniki are decapitated on Sultan orders in Constantinople; Metropolitans Chrysanthos of Paphos, Meletios of Kition and Lavrentios of Kyrenia are executed in Nicosia, Cyprus; liberation fighters started calling themselves ''"[[Greek (name)|Hellenes]]"'' (for continuity with their ancient Hellenic heritage), rather than using the generic ''"[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_the_Greeks#Romans_.28.CE.A1.CF.89.CE.BC.CE.B1.CE.AF.CE.BF.CE.B9.29_and_Romioi_.28.CE.A1.CF.89.CE.BC.CE.B9.CE.BF.CE.AF.29 Romioi]" (Ρωμιοί)'' (which referred to both their Roman citizenship and religious affiliation to Orthodox Christendom).<br />
*1823 Wonderworking Icon of Panagia Evangelistria found on [[Tinos]], led by a vision from Pelagia of Tinos, becoming the most venerated pilgrimage item in Greece, at the Church of Evangelistria (Tinos, Greece); martyrdom of Hieromonk Christos of Ioannina. <br />
*1827 Europe recognises the autonomy of Greece.<br />
*1828 [[Ioannis Kapodistrias|John Capodistrias]], first governor of Greece, confiscates Athonite metochia; Greek church opened in London (2nd time).<br />
*1829 Treaty of Adrianople ends Greek War of Independence, culminating in the creation of the modern Greek state.<br />
<br />
=== First Hellenic Republic (1829-1832) ===<br />
*ca. 1829 The purified and formal ''Katharevousa'' dialect of Modern Greek is promoted as the official language (to 1976).<br />
*1831 The fully sovereign status of Greece was accepted at the London Conference of 1831.<br />
*1832 European powers establish Greek protectorate; [[King Otto|Otho I]] enthroned as Greek King.<br />
<br />
=== Kingdom of Greece (1833-1924) ===<br />
*1832-35 "Bavarokratia" closes down 600 monasteries and nationalises monastic land-holdings<br />
*1833 The National Assembly at Nauplio declares the [[Church of Greece]] as independent from the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] of Constantinople.<br />
*1834 Suppression of many monasteries in the new Greek kingdom.<br />
*1837 School of Theology at the ''National and Capodistrian [[University of Athens]]'' founded.<br />
*1838 Death of New Martyr George of Ioannina.<br />
*1839 [[Theofilos Kairis]] of Andros condemned and imprisoned for teaching a form of Deism.<br />
*1844 Prime Minister [[Ioannis Kolettis]] first coined the expression the "Great Idea" ([[Megali Idea]]), envisaging the restoration of the Christian Orthodox Byzantine Empire with its capital once again established at Constantinople, becoming the core of Greek foreign policy until the early 20th century; King Otho I accepts constitution.<br />
<br />
== Autocephalous Era (1850-Present) ==<br />
[[Image:Greece 1832-1947.JPG|right|thumb|220px|The expansion of Greece from 1832 to 1947, showing territories awarded to Greece in 1919 but lost in 1923.]]<br />
*1850 Endemousa Synod in Constantinople presided over by by Patriarch Anthimos IV of Constantinople recognised Autocephaly of the Church of Greece; due to certain conditions issued in the "Tomos" decree, the Greek National Church must maintain special links to the "Mother Church".<br />
*1856 Death of [[Neophytus Vamvas]], Greek cleric and educator who had translated the Bible into [[Modern Greek]].<br />
*1863 [[King George I|George I]] enthroned as King of Greece.<br />
*1864 First Orthodox parish established on American soil in New Orleans, Louisiana, by Greeks.<br />
*1866 Greek church takes the diocese of the Ionian Islands from Constantinople; beginning of the Great Cretan Revolution (1866-1869); the [[Arkadi|holocaust of Arkadi Monastery]] in Crete.<br />
*1871 Body of [[Patriarch Gregory V]] returned to Athens and entombed in cathedral.<br />
*1877 Death of [[Arsenios of Paros]] ([[January 31]]).<br />
*1878 Council of Athens, convened and presided over by Metropolitan Procopius I of Athens, condemned the Makrakists, obtaining closure of Apostolos Makrakis' ''"School of the Logos"'' on the pretext that it taught doctrines opposed to the tenets of the Church, and addressed an encyclical to the whole body of Christians in Greece that was read in the churches, charging Makrakis with attempting to introduce innovations.<br />
*1878 Cyprus is ceded to Britain by Ottoman Empire at the Congress of Berlin.<br />
*1881 Turks cede Thessaly and [[Arta]] regions to Greece; Thessaly and part of Epirus added to the Church of Greece.<br />
*1882 During the Patriarchate of Joachim III, the ''[[Great School of the Nation]]'' was housed in a new large building in the area of the Phanar.<br />
*1888 Death of Panagis of Lixouri (Cephalonia); ''Typikon of the Great Church of Christ'' is published with revised church services, prepared by Protopsaltis George Violakis, issued with the approval and blessing of the Ecumenical Patriarch, while the ''Sabaite (monastic) Typikon'' continues to be used in Russia ''(i.e. from 1682-1888 the Greek and Russian Churches had shared a common [[Typikon]]).''<br />
*1890-1917 Emigration of 450,000 Greeks to the United States, many as hired labor for the railroads and mines of the American West.<br />
*1885 Prominent Greek painter [[Nikolaos Gyzis]] paints the famous "Secret school" ("κρυφό σχολειό"), refering to the underground schools provided by the Greek Orthodox Church in monasteries and churches during the time of Ottoman rule in Greece (15th-19th c.) for keeping alive Orthodox Christian doctrines and Greek language and literacy. <br />
*1897 [[Greco-Turkish War (1897)]].<br />
*1901 "[[Evangelika]]" riots in Athens Greece in November, over translations of New Testament into [[Modern_Greek#Demotic_as_Koine_.28Standard.29_Modern_Greek|Demotic]] ([[Modern Greek|Modern]]) Greek, resulting in fall of both government and [[Archbishop of Athens|Metropolitan of Athens]], and withdrawal of publications from circulation.<br />
*1904 Ecumenical Patriarchate]] publishes the [http://kainh.homestead.com/files/noteptxt.pdf "Patriarchal" Text of the Greek New Testament], based on about twenty Byzantine manuscripts, the standard text of the Greek-speaking Orthodox churches today.<br />
*1905 Death of Apostolos Makrakis.<br />
*1907 Archim. Eusebius Matthopoulos founds Zoe Brotherhood.<br />
*1908 Death of Methodia of Kimolos; jurisdiction of Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America and the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia was given to the Church of Greece under an agreement made between the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Holy Synod of Athens (until 1922 in America; until 1924 in Australia).<br />
*1912 Epirus, Macedonia and eastern islands, from Northern territories of Greece, are liberated and come under the administration of the Greek Church.<br />
*1912-13 [[First Balkan War|First]] and [[Second Balkan War]]s; liberation of Thessaloniki from the Turks.<br />
*1913-14 Greeks annex Crete, Chios and [[Mytilene]], [[World War I]].<br />
*1914 According to the [[Corfu]] Protocol [[Northern Epirus]] is granted autonomy within Albania. <br />
*1917 Hierarchy of the Greek Church changed in accordance with political control of the country.<br />
*1918-24 Emigration of 70,000 Greeks to the United States.<br />
*1919-22 [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]]; a million refugees flee to Greece joining half a million Greeks who had fled earlier; Greek Genocide eliminates the Greek Orthodox population of [[Trapezus|Trebizond]] and [[Anatolia]]. <br />
*1920 Death of [[Saint Nectarius|Nektarios]] of Pentapolis ([[Aegina]]); [[Dodecanese Islands]] ceded to Greece by Italy; publication of Encyclical Letters by Constantinople on Christian unity and on the Ecumenical Movement; Treaty of Sèvres cedes [[Eastern Thrace]] and Ionia (Zone of Smyrna) to Greece, but is superceded in 1923 by the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] by which these areas were again lost.<br />
*1921 Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America formed.<br />
*1922 Metropolis of Aitolia and Akarnania founded in its modern form; death of Ethnomartyr Metropolitan [[Bishop Chrysostom of Smyrna|Chrysostomos (Kalafatis) of Smyrna]], lynched by a Turkish mob incited by Nureddin Pasha on Sunday September 10; Greek troops in Asia Minor are routed by Turks; the predominatly Orthodox Christian city of [[Smyrna]] is destroyed, ending 1900 years of Christian civilization; Patriarch Meletius IV (Metaxakis) of Constantinople transferred the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America from the Church of Greece back to the jurisdiction of the Church of Constantinople.<br />
*1923 Exchange of Christian and Moslem population between Greece and Turkey; [[Treaty of Lausanne]] affirmed the international status of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, with Turkey guaranteeing respect and the Patriarchate’s full protection, also granting control of the Holy Mountain ([[Mount Athos]]) to Greece; Patriarch ceases to be regarded as head of the Christian Orthodox Millet in Turkey; Patriarch [[Meletius Metaxakis|Meletius IV (Metaxakis)]] of Constantinople promulgates reformed calendar.<br />
*1924 Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia founded.<br />
<br />
=== Second Hellenic Republic (1924-1935) ===<br />
*1924 Death of Arsenios of Cappadocia; Constitution of the Holy Mountain agreed; Greek government adopts new calendar.<br />
*1925 School of Theology established at the ''[[Aristotle University|Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]]''.<br />
*1925-45 Emigration of fewer than 30,000 Greeks to the United States, many of whom were "picture brides" for single Greek men.<br />
*1926 Proposal for Mount Athos to be turned into a Casino by Dictator Pangalos.<br />
*1928 The Ecumenical Patriarchate issued a tome by which it ceded to the Church of Greece on a temporary basis 35 of its metropolitan dioceses in northern Greece to be administered by it.<br />
*1930 Mustapha Kemal Atatürk officially renamed Constantinople to Istanbul, which comes from the Greek expression "eis tin poli" (to the City) .<br />
*1931 Benaki Museum opens in Athens, housing Byzantine, Post-Byzantine, and Neo-Hellenic ecclesiastical and national art collections.<br />
*1932 Death of Papa-Nicholas (Planas).<br />
*1933 Church of Greece bans Freemasonry. <br />
*1935 Old Calendar schism, when three bishops declared their separation from the official Church of Greece stating that the calendar change was a schismatic act; Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, transformed Hagia Sophia into a museum.<br />
<br />
=== Kingdom of Greece Restored (1935-1967) ===<br />
*1936 Apostoliki Diakonia of the Church of Greece founded; General [[Ioannis Metaxas]], Prime Minister of Greece during the 4th of August Regime (1936-41), propagated a Third Hellenic Civilization (Ancient Greece and Byzantium being the first two).<br />
*1938 Death of Silouan of Mt Athos. <br />
*1939-49 WWII and subsequent [[Greek Civil War|Greek civil war]] (1942-49), famine and widespread bloodshed.<br />
*1939 The immigration of the Antiochian Greeks reaches its peak.<br />
*1943 Massacre of [[Kalavryta]] by German occupation forces, including the monks and monastery of Agia Lavra; the Nazi attempt to exterminate the Jews of Athens fails, thanks to the combined efforts of [[Archbishop Damaskinos|Abp. Damaskinos (Papandreou)]] of Athens, Greek resistance groups and the Greek people.<br />
*1945 Abp. Damaskinos (Papandreou) of Athens serves as regent in an attempt to stabilise Greece.<br />
*1946-82 Approximately 211,000 Greeks emigrated to the United States. <br />
*1947 The Dodecanese Islands are liberated but remain under the Patriarchate of Constantinople.<br />
*1948 Death of Savvas the New of Kalymnos.<br />
*1950 Uncovering of the relics of St. Ephraim of New Makri.<br />
*1952 New Monastery of Panagia Soumela built in the village of Kastania, in Macedonia, Greece, housing the wonderworking icon of Panagia Soumela, becoming a center of religious pilgrimage. <br />
*1953 The Athonite School was officially re-established in Mount Athos, now named the ''‘Athonite Ecclesiastical Academy’'', it occupies a wing of the Skete of St Andrew in Karyes, and follows the Greek secondary school curriculum combined with ecclesiastical education.<br />
*1955 In September in Istanbul an organised mob was turned against the ethnic Greek community and the Ecumenical Patriarchate in an orchestrated pogrom, destroying 73 churches, 1,004 residences, 5,000 small- and medium-sized businesses, two cemeteries, 23 schools and 5 athletic centres; the number of ethnic Greeks who were forced to leave Turkey by 1960 as a result of these events is estimated at around 9,000. <---''Are you sure about this figure?''<br />
*1959 Death of Blessed Elder Joseph (Spilaiotis) the Hesychast.<br />
*1960 Death of Anthimos of [[Chios]].<br />
*1963 Soter Brotherhood is created, as the more traditionalist members broke away from the Zoe Brotherhood to form a smaller new brotherhood under the leadership of Prof. Panagiotes N. Trembelas, having a profound influence on the Church of Greece; Second Pan-Orthodox Conference held in Rhodes; 1000th anniversary celebration of founding of Mount Athos. <br />
*1964 Panagia Malevi icon of the Mother of God begins gushing myrrh; third Pan-Orthodox Conference held in Rhodes; in March Turkey denounced the 1930 bilateral agreement on disputes arising from the exchange of populations and expelled more than 17,000 ethnic Greeks, who were deprived of all access to their real estate, goods and chattels, subsequently followed by the de facto exodus of 40,000 ethnic Greeks of Turkish citizenship.<br />
*1965 First Metropolitan for [[Piraeus]] is elected, His Eminence Chrysostomos (Tabladorakis) of Argolidos; Monastery of Panagia Pantanassa (Kranidiou) founded; Pope Paul VI of Rome and [[Patriarch Athenagoras]] I (Spyrou) of Constantinople mutually nullify the excommunications of 1054.<br />
*1966 Death of Righteous Father Ieronymos (Apostolides) of [[Aegina]]; Center for Byzantine Research established at the ''[[Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]]''.<br />
<br />
=== Military Dictatorship (1967-1974) ===<br />
*1968 Orthodox Academy of Crete (OAC) founded.<br />
*1970 Death of Amphilochios (Makris) of Patmos.<br />
*1971 Theological School of Halki, Orthodoxy's most prominent theological school, is closed by Turkish authorities breaching Article 40 of the [[Treaty of Lausanne|Lausanne Treaty]] and Article 24 of the Turkish Constitution which both guarantee religious freedom and education. <br />
*1972 Ecclesiastical coup in Cyprus fails to remove Makarios from the Presidency.<br />
*1974 [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]], Turkish forces advance capturing the 37% of the island, 3,000 are killed or missing, 200,000 become refugees; the Monarchy is voted out by a plebiscite vote of 69%.<br />
<br />
=== Third Hellenic Republic (1974-Present) ===<br />
*1974 [[Esphigmenou Monastery]] (Athos), a stronghold for the conservative Greek [[Old Calendarists]], withdrew its representative from the common meetings of the Holy Community at [[Karyes]] (the administrative center of [[Mount Athos]]), accusing the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate|Patriarchate]] of being ecumenist, and refusing to commemorate the Patriarch; Metropolitan [[Seraphim|Seraphim (Tikas)]] of Ioannina is elected [[Archbishop of Athens]] and all Greece (1974-1998).<br />
*1975 Death of [[Papa-Dimitris (Gagastathis)]]; ''Article 3'' of the Greek Constitution officially declares the prevailing religion in Greece as [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]] under the authority of the autocephalous [[Church of Greece]], united in doctrine to the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]].<br />
*1976 The ''Dimotiki ([[Demotic]])'' dialect of Modern Greek was made the official language, replacing the purified and formal ''[[Katharevousa]]'' dialect of Modern Greek which had been in use for nearly two centuries since foundation of the modern Greek state.<br />
*1978 Abortions are legalised in Greece but only under certain specific circumstances. <br />
*1980 Death of [[Elder Philotheos (Zervakos)]] of [[Paros]]; Orthodox-Roman Catholic Joint Commission for Theological Dialogue, 1st plenary, met in Patmos and Rhodes.<br />
*1981 Greece becomes the 10th member of the European Community, January 1; Adultery is decriminalized in the penal code.<br />
*1982 [[Monotonic orthography]] was imposed by law on the Greek language, however the Greek Orthodox Church continues to use [[Polytonic orthography]].<br />
*1983 Death of [[Elder Arsenios]] the cave-dweller of Mt. Athos.<br />
*1984 Orthodox-Roman Catholic Joint Commission, 3rd plenary, meets in [[Chania]], Crete. <br />
*1986 Root of Jesse icon of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mother of God]] in [[Andros]] begins gushing myrrh.<br />
*1987 In April, parliament approved a law to expropriate monastic land in order to redistribute some to poor peasants, and to take over administration of urban church-owned assets; Abp. [[Seraphim|Seraphim (Tikas)]] of Athens was victorious however in preventing the government from expropriating church landholdings, by allowing some land redistribution while opposing nationalisation of church and monastery land. <br />
*1988 [[Mount Athos]] is designated a UNESCO World Heritage site; radio station "Church of Piraeus 91.2 FM" begins transmitting in October.<br />
*1989 [[Elder Ephraim of Philotheou]] begins founding Athonite-style monasteries in North America.<br />
*1991 Death of [[Elder Porphyrios (Bairaktaris)]] the Kapsokalivite (February 7).<br />
*1992 Deaths of [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Gabrielia_(Papayannis) Gabrielia (Papayannis)] and Chrysanthi of Andros; Synaxis of primates of Orthodox churches in Constantinople; [[Thessaloniki]] was selected as the cultural capital of Europe.<br />
*1993 [[Church of Cyprus]] condemned Freemasonry as a religion incompatible with Christianity; canonization of [[Bishop Chrysostom of Smyrna|Chrysostomos (Kalafatis)]] of Smyrna.<br />
*1994 Death of [[Elder Paisios (Eznepidis)]] of Mt. Athos ([[July 12]]); Museum of Byzantine Culture is inaugurated in Thessaloniki; Greek Parliament passes a resolution affirming the genocide in the [[Pontus]] region of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] and designated [[May 19]] a day of commemoration. <br />
*1995 Death of [[Eldress Macrina of Volos]]; Ecumenical Patr. [[Patriarch Bartholomew I|Bartholomew I (Archontonis)]] of Constantinople visits [[Patmos]] as part of the celebration of the 1,900th anniversary of the writing of the [[Book of Revelation]] by the [[Apostle John]] the Evangelist. <br />
*1997 A bomb explodes at the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate|Patriarchate of Constantinople]], seriously injuring Orthodox deacon Nectarius Nikolou and damaging several buildings.<br />
*1998 Death of [[Elder Ephraim of Katounakia]]; [http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/ecumenism/thessaloniki_roc.aspx Thessaloniki Summit] held to discuss Orthodox participation in World Council of Churches (WCC); [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens was enthroned in Athens as the new head of the [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox Church]] (1998-2008); a proposal to force the separation of church and state in Greece was rejected; Greek parliament affirmed the genocide of Greeks in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] as a whole (Pontian and western Anatolian Greeks), and designated [[September 14]] a day of commemoration.<br />
*2000 Government of Greece orders removal of compulsory reference to religious affiliation on state identity cards, despite campaigns against this from the [[Church of Greece]] and the majority of the public.<br />
*2001 Death of [[Elder Haralambos Dionysiatis]], teacher of noetic prayer; on the first trip to Greece by a Pope since AD 710, Pope John Paul II of Rome apologizes to Orthodox Church for [[Fourth Crusade]]; a day earlier some 1,000 Orthodox conservatives took to the streets to denounce his visit; in March, Abp. [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens blessed the ''Hellenic Genocide Petition Effort'', which urged that the government not violate Law 2675/98 by deleting the term "genocide" when explaining the destruction of Hellenism in Asia Minor; Abp. [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens visits the Patriarchate of Moscow, being also received by Russian President Vladimir Putin. <br />
*2002 Metropolis of Glyfada is established as a new metropolis separating from Metropolis of Nea Smyrni; Abp. [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens consented to the construction of a mosque in Athens to end the situation of the Greek capital being the only EU capital without a Muslim place of worship; Ecumenical Patr. [[Patriarch Bartholomew I|Bartholomew I (Archontonis)]] declared the monks of [[Esphigmenou Monastery]] (Athos) as being in schism with the Orthodox Church.<br />
*2003 Orthodox Churches in Europe commemorated the 550th anniversary of the [[fall of Constantinople]] in May; the Greek Minister of Culture [[Evangelos Venizelos]] informs Europarliament session that the status of the monasteries on Holy [[Mount Athos]] and its way of life will remain unchanged, citing official recognition of this status fixed in Article 105 of the Greek Constitution and also legally confirmed in the special Athens Treaty clause specifying conditions on which Greece joined the European Union; in February, the Holy Synod of the [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox Church]] issued a statement opposing the threat of war in Iraq.<br />
*2003 Abp. [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens has falling out with Ecumenical Patr. [[Patriarch Bartholomew I|Bartholomew I (Archontonis)]] over who should have the final say in the appointment of bishops in northern Greece, but rift is mended four months later; the proposal to build a mosque outside Athens before the 2004 Olympics was blocked due to opposition from residents and Greece's Orthodox Church which disagreed with the location and plans for the funding for the multimillion-pound mosque to come from Saudi Arabia's King Fahd.<br />
*2004 In September, a helicopter carrying Patr. [[Petros VII (Papapetrou) of Alexandria|Petros VII (Papapetrou)]] of Alexandria along with 16 others (including 3 other bishops of the [[Church of Alexandria]]) crashed into the Aegean Sea while en route to the monastic community of [[Mount Athos]] with no survivors.<br />
*2005 [[Church of Greece]] hosted the WCC ''World Conference on Mission and Evangelism'' in Athens, the first in an Orthodox country in the history of this body; in October, the ''"Grey Wolves"'' Turkish terrorist group staged a rally outside the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] in Phanar, proceeding to the gate where they laid a black wreath, chanting ''"Patriarch Leave"'' and ''"Patriarchate to Greece"'', inaugurating the campaign for the collection of signatures to oust the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] from [[Constantinople|Istanbul]]; Britain's Prince Charles arrived on the monastic community of [[Mount Athos]] for a three-day visit in May; Vladimir Putin becomes the first Russian state leader to visit [[Mount Athos]]. <br />
*2006 Abp. [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens visits Vatican, the first head of the [[Church of Greece]] to visit the Vatican, reciprocating the Pope's visit to Greece in 2001, and signing a Joint Declaration on the importance of the Christian roots of Europe and protecting fundamental human rights; government of Greece announces it will fund and build a €15 million (US$19 million) new mosque in Athens, to be the the first working mosque in the Greek capital since the end of Ottoman rule over 170 years prior, welcomed by Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens and the Church of Greece in accordance with its established position; Abp. [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens castigated globalisation as a ''"crime against humanity"''; Prime Minister [[Costas Karamanlis]] goes on a three-day pilgrimmage to [[Mount Athos]].<br />
*2006 The church reported that there were 216 men’s monastic communities and 259 for women along with 66 sketes, with a total of 1,041 monks and 2,500 nuns, witnessing to a modern modest revival in monasticism; in September, barely 48 hours after a Somali Islamic cleric called for Muslims to kill the Pope, Abp. [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens told a sermon in Athens that Christians in Africa were suffering at the hands of ''"fanatic Islamists"'', citing the example of Roman Catholic monks who were slaughtered the previous year ''"because they wore the cross and believed in our crucified Lord"''; Abp. [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens criticized the authors of a state issued elementary school sixth grade history textbook, as attempting to conceal the Church's role in defending Greek national identity during Ottoman occupation, the book being later removed in 2007.<br />
*2007 Greek Minority Lyceum at the Phanar (''[[Great School of the Nation|Megali tou Genous Sxoli]]'' - today a middle and high school of the Greek minority) wins a judgement condemning Turkey at the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), for violation of the ''European Convention On Human Rights (protection of property)''; 1600th anniversary celebration of the repose of [[John Chrysostom]]; the "International Association of Genocide Scholars" passed the ''[http://www.genocidescholars.org/images/Resolution_on_genocides_committed_by_the_Ottoman_Empire.pdf IAGS Resolution on Genocides Against Assyrians, Greeks, Armenians, and Other Christians by the Ottoman Empire 13 July 2007],'' affirming that the Ottoman campaign against Christian minorities between 1914-1923 was genocide.<br />
*2008 Death of Abp. [[Christodoulos|Christodoulos (Paraskevaides)]] of Athens, who proved to be one of the most popular archbishops in Greek history, reviving the appeal of the Church in a secular age, especially among young people; Abp. [[Ieronymus II|Ieronymos II (Liapis)]] of Athens elected; Glorification of [[George (Karslidis) of Drama]]; [http://www.ec-patr.org/docdisplay.php?lang=en&id=995&tla=en Pan-Orthodox meeting in Constantinople] in October of the Primates of the fourteen Orthodox Churches, signing a document calling for inter-orthodox unity and collaboration and "''the continuation of preparations for the Holy and Great Council''".<br />
*2009 The European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) ruled that Turkey violated the property rights of the ''Bozcaada Kimisis Teodoku Greek Orthodox Church'' on the Aegean island of Bozcaada; the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] has filed more than two dozen cases with the ECHR to recover some of the thousands of properties it has lost; US President Barack Obama made an explicit appeal in his speech to the Turkish Parliament for the reopening of the hotly contested Greek Orthodox seminary on Halki, viewed by the European Union and others as a test case for religious freedom in Turkey.<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
*Some of these dates are necessarily a bit vague, as records for some periods are particularly difficult to piece together accurately. <br />
*The division of Church History into separate eras as we do here will always be to some extent arbitrary, though we have tried to group periods according to major watershed events. <br />
*This timeline is necessarily biased toward the history of the Orthodox Church, though a number of non-Orthodox events are mentioned for their importance in history related to Orthodoxy.<br />
<br />
===Church and State===<br />
The Orthodox Church in Greece has been considered historically as the protector of the so-called “Hellenic Orthodox Civilization.” The actual role of the Orthodox Church since the creation of the Greek nation-state has been interpreted in many diverse and opposing ways; nevertheless, '''in all Greek Constitutions the Orthodox Church is accorded the status of the “prevailing religion"'''. <br><br />
Article 3 of Greece's Constitution defines the relations between the Church and the State : <br />
<br />
:''"The prevailing religion in Greece is that of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] of Christ. The Orthodox Church of Greece, acknowledging our Lord Jesus Christ as its head, is inseparably united in doctrine with the Great Church of Christ in Constantinople and with every other Church of Christ of the same doctrine, observing unwaveringly, as they do, the holy apostolic and synodal canons and sacred traditions. It is autocephalous and is administered by the Holy Synod of serving Bishops and the Permanent Holy Synod originating thereof and assembled as specified by the Statutory Charter of the Church in compliance with the provisions of the Patriarchal Tome of June 29, 1850 and the Synodal Act of September 4, 1928."''<ref>"[http://www.greeceindex.com/About_Greece/Greek_Religion.html Religion of Greece]." at Greece Index.</ref><br />
<br />
'''Greece is the only Orthodox state in the world'''. The relationship between the Church and the State can be characterized as ''Sui generis'', since there is no complete separation nor is there an established church. The Church is the State-Church. The role of the Orthodox Church in maintaining Greek ethnic and cultural identity during the 400 years of Ottoman rule has strengthened the bond between religion and government. Most Greeks, whether personally religious or not, revere and respect the Orthodox Christian faith, attend church and major feast days, and are emotionally attached to Orthodox Christianity as their "national" religion.<br />
<br />
=== Names of the Greeks ===<br />
The Greeks have been known by a number of different names throughout history. Their rise to great heights of power and lapse to near complete destruction were situations that were repeated more than once, which is perhaps why they are such a polyonymous people. The onset of every new historical era was accompanied by a new name, either completely new or old but forgotten, extracted from tradition or borrowed from foreigners. Every single one of them was significant in its own time. From ancient times to the present these included:<br />
* Achaeans (Αχαιοί)<br />
* Hellenes (Έλληνες)<br />
* Graeci (Γραικοί)<br />
* Byzantines (Βυζαντινοί)<br />
* Romans (Ρωμαίοι)<br />
* Romioi (Ρωμιοί)<br />
<br />
===Patriarchate of Rome=== <br />
The Byzantine ''"themes"'' of Greece rebelled against the [[iconoclast]] emperor [[Leo III]] in 727 and attempted to set up their own emperor, although Leo defeated them. ''Up to this time Greece and the Aegean were still technically under the ecclesiastic authority of the Pope'', but Leo also quarreled with the Papacy; the defiant attitude of Popes St. Gregory II and St. Gregory III of Rome, who summoned councils in Rome to anathematize and excommunicate the iconoclasts (730, 732) on behalf of image-veneration, led to a fierce quarrel with the emperor. Leo retaliated however by transferring the territories of southern Italy, Greece and the Aegean from the papal diocese to that of the the Patriarch of Constantinople, in effect throwing the Papacy out of the Empire.<br><br />
Previously the lands which Leo ΙΙΙ now placed under the authority of the Church of Constantinople, although subject to the civil rule of the emperor of Constantinople ever since the end of 395, had nevertheless depended upon Rome ecclesiastically, except for a few brief interruptions including: <br />
* In 421 (when a decree enacted by Emperor [[Theodosius II]] placed all churches within the pale of the ''Illyricum prefecture'' (then part of the Eastern Empire) subject to the Archbishop of Constantinople).<br />
* In 438, through the Theodosian Codex, ''Illyricum'' was again placed under Constantinopolitan jurisdiction.<br />
* To some extent during the Acacian schism, 484-519.<br />
'''Praetorian Prefecture of Illyricum'''<br><br />
The ''Prefecture of Illyricum'' was named after the former province of Illyricum and was one of the four principal divisions of the Empire instituted by Diocletian. It originally included two dioceses, the ''Diocese of Pannoniae'' and the ''Diocese of Moesiae''. The Diocese of Pannoniae did not belong to the cultural Greek half of the empire, and it was transferred to the western empire when Theodosius I fixed the final split of the two empires in 395. <br />
<br />
The ''' ''Diocese of Moesiae'' ''' (later split into two dioceses: the ''Diocese of Macedonia'' and the ''Diocese of Dacia'') was the area known as "Eastern Illyricum", and in view of the detailed list of provinces given by Pope Nicholas Ι (858-67) in a letter in which he demanded the retrocession of the churches removed from papal jurisdiction in 732-33, this area seems to have been the region affected by Emperor Leo's punitive action. <br />
* The ''' ''Diocese of Macedonia'' ''' consisted of seven provinces: Achaia, Creta, Thessalia, Epirus vetus, Epirus nova, Macedonia Prima, Macedoniae salutaris (Secunda).<br />
* The ''' ''Diocese of Dacia'' ''' consisted of five provinces: Dacia mediterranea, Dacia ripensis, Moesia Prima, Dardania, Praevalitana.<br />
<br />
== Published works ==<br />
'''Byzantine Era'''<br />
* Rev. Dr. Andrew Louth. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=WlpPjOlVzQwC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Greek East and Latin West : The Church, AD 681-1071]''. '''The Church in History Vol. III'''. Crestwood, N.Y. : St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, 2007. ISBN 9780881413205<br />
* John Meyendorff. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9HQ3YU9SAG8C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church].'' Crestwood, N.Y. : St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1982. ISBN 9780913836903<br />
* John Meyendorff. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GoVeDXMvY-8C&pg=PP5&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_1 Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes.]'' 2nd ed. Fordham Univ Press, 1979. ISBN 9780823209675<br />
* J. M. Hussey. ''Church & Learning in the Byzantine Empire, 867-1185.'' Oxford University Press, 1937.<br />
* [http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/vryonis_memoirs.html Milton V. Anastos]. ''Aspects of the Mind of Byzantium: Political Theory, Theology, and Ecclesiastical Relations with the See of Rome''. Ashgate Publications, Variorum Collected Studies Series, 2001.<br />
* [http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/vryonis_memoirs.html Milton V. Anastos]. ''"The transfer of Illyricum, Calabria, and Sicily to the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople in 732-33."'' In: Anastos, '''Studies in Byzantine Intellectual History'''. Variorum Collected Studies Series, London, 1979.<br />
* Prof. Fergus Millar. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GMpC3MJgmGwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:Fergus+inauthor:Millar#PPP1,M1 A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450)]''. University of California Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0520253919 <br />
* Speros Vryonis, (Jr). ''"Byzantine Attitudes towards Islam during the Late Middle Ages."'' '''Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies''' 12 (1971). <br />
* Steven Runciman. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=YQYe7VGlym8C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 The Byzantine Theocracy].'' Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 9780521545914 <br />
* Timothy S. Miller. ''Medieval Byzantine Christianity''. Ed. by Derek Krueger. '''A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 3'''. Minneapolis, Fortress Press. 2006. pp.252.<br />
<br />
'''Latin Occupation'''<br />
* Aristeides Papadakis (with John Meyendorff). ''The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy: The Church 1071-1453 A.D.'' '''The Church in History Vol. IV'''. Crestwood, N.Y. : St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1994. ISBN 9780881410587<br />
* Deno John Geanakoplos. ''Byzantine East and Latin West: Two worlds of Christendom in Middle Ages and Renaissance: Studies in Ecclesiastical and Cultural History.'' Oxford Blackwell 1966. ISBN 9780208016157<br />
* E. Brown. ''"The Cistercians in the Latin Empire of Constantinople and Greece."'' '''Traditio''' 14 (1958), pp.63-120.<br />
* Kenneth M. Setton. ''Catalan Domination of Athens, 1311-1388.'' Mediaeval Academy of America, 1948.<br />
* P. Charanis. ''"Byzantium, the West and the Origin of the First Crusade."'' '''Byzantion''' 19 (1949), pp.17-36.<br />
* R. Wolff. ''"The Organisation of the Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople 1204-61."'' '''Traditio''' 6 (1948), pp.33-60.<br />
* William Miller. ''The Latins in the Levant: A History of Frankish Greece 1204-1566''. Cambridge, Speculum Historiale, 1908.<br />
<br />
'''Ottoman Turkish Occupation'''<br />
* Apostolos E. Vacalopoulos. ''The Greek Nation, 1453-1669: The Cultural and Economic Background of Modern Greek Society.'' Transl. from Greek. Rutgers University Press, 1975. ISBN 9780813508108 ''(One of the few scholarly studies in English of this period)''<br />
* Bat Ye'or. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=C2GgHl9Rls0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Decline+of+Eastern+Christianity+under+Islam%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude: Seventh-Twentieth Century]''. Translated by Miriam Kochan. Published by Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1996. 522pp. ISBN 9780838636886<br />
* Fr. Nomikos Michael Vaporis. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&id=wTdz-34tZ4sC&dq=%22Witnesses+for+Christ%22&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=95xDXrAvzW&sig=wwfJEpZuBFhL3duFdlqtp_vXLkg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result Witnesses for Christ: Orthodox Christian Neomartyrs of the Ottoman Period 1437-1860]''. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2000. 377 pp. ISBN 9780881411966<br />
* George P. Henderson. ''The Revival of Greek Thought, 1620-1830.'' State University of New York Press, 1970. ISBN 9780873950695 ''(Focuses on the intellectual revivial preceeding the War of Independence in 1821)''<br />
* George A. Maloney, (S.J.). ''A History of Orthodox Theology Since 1453''. Norland Publishing, Massachusetts, 1976. <br />
* Leften S. Stavrianos. ''The Balkans Since 1453''. Rinehart & Company, New York, 1958.<br />
* Speros Vryonis, (Jr). ''The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century''. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971. ''(Very comprehensive, masterpiece of scholarship)''<br />
* Steven Runciman. ''The Great Church in Captivity: A Study of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the Eve of the Turkish Conquest to the Greek War of Independence.'' Cambridge University Press,1986. <br />
* Theodore H. Papadopoulos. ''Studies and Documents Relating to the History of the Greek Church and People Under Turkish Domination''. 2nd ed. Variorum, Hampshire, Great Britain, 1990. ''(Scholarly; Source texts in Greek)''<br />
:'''Articles'''<br />
:* Elizabeth A. Zachariadou. ''[http://histories.cambridge.org/extract?id=chol9780521811132_CHOL9780521811132A008 The Great Church in captivity 1453–1586].'' '''Eastern Christianity'''. Ed. Michael Angold. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Cambridge Histories Online. <br />
:* Elizabeth A. Zachariadou. ''[http://histories.cambridge.org/extract?id=chol9780521811132_CHOL9780521811132A007 Mount Athos and the Ottomans c. 1350–1550].'' '''Eastern Christianity'''. Ed. Michael Angold. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Cambridge Histories Online. <br />
:* I. K. Hassiotis. ''From the 'Refledging' to the 'Illumination of the Nation': Aspects of Political Ideology in the Greek Church Under Ottoman Domination''. '''Balkan Studies''' 1999 40(1): 41-55.<br />
:* Socrates D. Petmezas. ''Christian Communities in Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century Ottoman Greece: Their Fiscal Functions''. '''Princeton Papers: Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle Eastern Studies''' 2005 12: 71-127.<br />
<br />
'''Greek War of Independence'''<br />
* David Brewer. ''The Greek War of Independence : the struggle for freedom from Ottoman oppression and the birth of the modern Greek nation.'' Woodstock, N.Y. : Overlook Press, 2001. 393pp.<br />
* Douglas Dakin. ''The Greek struggle for independence, 1821-1833''. London, Batsford 1973.<br />
* Joseph Braddock. ''The Greek Phoenix: The Struggle for Liberty from the Fall of Constantinople to the Creation of a New Greek Nation''. NY. Coward, McCann & Geoghegan. 1973. 1st ed. 233pp.<br />
* Nikiforos P. Diamandouros [et al] (Eds.). ''Hellenism and the First Greek war of Liberation (1821-1830) : Continuity and Change.'' The Modern Greek Studies Association of the United States and Canada. Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies, 1976.<br />
<br />
'''Modern Greece'''<br />
* Anastasios Anastassiadis. ''[http://www.ceri-sciencespo.com/publica/question/qdr11.pdf Religion and Politics in Greece: The Greek Church's 'Conservative Modernization' in the 1990's]''. Research in Question, No.11, January 2004. (PDF).<br />
* C.M. Woodhouse. ''Modern Greece''. 4th ed. Boston : Faber and Faber, 1986. <br />
* Charles A. Frazee. ''The Orthodox Church and independent Greece, 1821-1852''. Cambridge University Press 1969.<br />
* Demetrios J. Constantelos. ''The Greek Orthodox Church: Faith, History, and Practice.'' Seabury Press, 1967.<br />
* John Hadjinicolaou (Ed.). ''Synaxis: An Anthology of the Most Significant Orthodox Theology in Greece Appearing in the Journal Synaxē from 1982 to 2002''. Montréal : Alexander Press, 2006.<br />
* John L. Tomkinson. ''[http://www.anagnosis.gr/index.php?pageID=73&la=eng Between Heaven and Earth: The Greek Church].'' Anagnosis Books, Athens, 2004. ISBN 960-87186-5-1 <br />
* Mother Nectaria McLees. ''EVLOGEITE! A Pilgrim's Guide to Greece.'' 1st Ed. St. Nicholas Press, Kansas City, MO, 2002. 927 pp. ISBN 09716365-1-6<br />
* Rev. Dr. Nicon D. Patrinacos (M.A., D.Phil. (Oxon)). ''A Dictionary of Greek Orthodoxy - Λεξικον Ελληνικης Ορθοδοξιας''. Light & Life Publishing, Minnesota, 1984.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<div class="small"><references/></div><br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
* [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Timeline_of_Orthodoxy_in_Greece Timeline of Orthodoxy in Greece] at [http://orthodoxwiki.org/Main_Page OrthodoxWiki].<br />
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== External Links ==<br />
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[[Category:Timelines|Greece]]<br />
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Eastern_Orthodox_Church&diff=38654Eastern Orthodox Church2009-03-27T23:49:53Z<p>Angellight 888: see also</p>
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<div>The '''Eastern Orthodox Church''' (encompassing national Orthodox jurisdictions such as [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox]], Russian Orthodox, etc.&mdash; is a body of Christians which claims origins extending directly back to [[Jesus]] and his Apostles through unbroken Apostolic Succession. Its doctrines were developed through a series of church councils, the most authoritative being the [[Ecumenical_Council#Councils_.231_to_.237|Seven Ecumenical Councils]] held between the [[4th century|4th]] and [[8th century|8th]] centuries. These councils were convened out of the necessity to resolve conflicts that had developed, concerning beliefs such as [[Arianism]], [[Nestorianism]], and [[Monothelitism]]. Toward the end of its first thousand years of existence differences developed between the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern]] and Western Roman Empire that ultimately led to the [[Great Schism]] in [[1054]], splitting Roman Catholics from the Eastern Orthodox.<br />
<br />
The present-day influence of the Orthodox Church encompasses the territories associated with the former Byzantine and Russian empires: Eastern Europe, Asia (Russia/Siberia), and parts of the Middle East and Africa. Today, although Orthodoxy's strongest influence can be seen in [[Greece]], Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria, FYROM and Georgia, the Orthodox Church has a presence in a great many other countries, with large communities in the USA and Australia.<br />
<br />
==Beliefs==<br />
===The Trinity=== <br />
Orthodox Christians believe in a single God who is both three and one&mdash;Triune&mdash;Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, "one in essence and undivided." The Holy [[Trinity]] is three "unconfused" distinct divine persons (''[[hypostasis|hypostases]]''), with no overlap or modality among them, who share one divine essence (''ousia'')&mdash;uncreated, immaterial and eternal. In discussing God's relationship to his creation a distinction is made between God's eternal essence and ''uncreated energies'', though it is understood that this distinction is artificial and that there is no real separation in God. Energies and essence are both inseparably God. This distinction is used by theologians to explain how it is that God can be both transcendent (His "essence" lies outside and infinitely distant from his creation), while at the same time he can touch his creation (His "uncreated energies" interact with His creation). It is also in His energies that we can perceive the three distinct persons of the Trinity.<br />
<br />
The Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from Whom is begotten the Son eternally and also from Whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith ([[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]]).<br />
<br />
===Salvation===<br />
<br />
Man, in Orthodox belief, was originally created perfect, but through his own actions he embraced evil through disobedience to God. Because of Man's fall he was condemned, when he died, to go to Hell (Hades); it is believed that from Adam to St. [[John the Baptist]], all men went to a place of separation from God. But when Jesus came into the world he himself was Perfect Man and Perfect God united. Through his participation in humanity, human nature was changed allowing human beings to participate in the divine nature. This process of changing human nature worked retroactive back to the beginning of time, saving all of those who came before, back to Adam. Salvation, or "being saved," therefore, refers to this process of being saved from the fate of separation from God. It is a distinct concept separate from the concept of "going to heaven." The Orthodox have always maintained that salvation belongs to all mankind and membership in the Orthodox Church is not required, however, it also maintains that the best and most complete path to participation in the gifts of God are spelled out by the Orthodox Church alone.<br />
<br />
The Orthodox believe that there is nothing that a person can do to earn entrance into Heaven. It is rather a gift from God, who wants nothing more than to restore the original relationship with mankind. However, such a gift has to be desired by the believer, God does not force Heaven on humanity. Man is free to reject it when offered by God.<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of the Orthodox Christian is to achieve ''theosis'', or Union with God. This is sometimes expressed thus: "God became Man so that Man might become God." This process is a "Goal" that is seldom reached by humans, but some have done it. Some of the greatest saints have achieved, in this life, a measure of the next. Of course, the individual who achieves theosis never realizes his accomplishment, as his perfect humility keeps him blind to pride.<br />
<br />
===Tradition===<br />
In contrast to Protestantism, which generally relies upon the Bible as the sole, ultimate doctrinal authority (''sola scriptura''), and similarly to Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy relies upon Tradition, a broad term encompassing the Bible, the Creed, the decrees of the Seven [[Ecumenical Councils]]; the writings of those considered the "Church Fathers", as well as Orthodox laws (canons), liturgical books and icons, etc. In reliance upon tradition, Orthodox point to Paul: "Therefore, brethren, stand fast, and hold the traditions which ye have been taught, whether by our spoken word, or by our epistle." (2 Thessalonians 2:15). The Orthodox Church believes that the Holy Spirit works through history to reveal truth to the members of the Church, and that He weeds out falsehood in order that the Truth may grow.<br />
<br />
===The Bible===<br />
The Bible in Orthodoxy is not always interpreted literally. In Orthodoxy, the true believer accepts what is written in The Bible, and never doubts it, but the actual attitude of Eastern Orthodox toward science varies, with conservative believers opposed to some concepts of evolution in the origins and development of life.<br />
<br />
Orthodoxy considers truth to be seen in the "Consensus of the Fathers", a perceived thread of agreement running through the patristic writings to the early Church and the Apostles. Those who disagreed with what came to be considered the consensus were not accepted as authentic "Fathers." All theological concepts must be in agreement with that consensus. Even those considered to be authentic "Fathers" may have some theological opinions that are not universally shared, but are not actually heretical. Thus an Orthodox Christian is not bound to agree with every opinion of every Father, but rather with the overall consensus of the Fathers, and then only on those matters about which the church is dogmatic. <br />
<br />
Eastern Orthodox theologians tended to rely more on Greek philosophers than did the West, often borrowing the categories and vocabulary of [[Neoplatonism]] to explain Christian doctrine, though not necessarily accepting all their theories. Some later non-Christian neoplatonist philosophers also borrowed some vocabulary from Christian theologians.<br />
<br />
===Sin and redemption===<br />
Generally speaking, the Orthodox tradition is uncomfortable with any practice which interprets doctrine in "legalistic" terms. Following rules strictly without the heart "being in it" does not help a believer with his salvation. Sin is not about breaking some set of rules; rather, it is the name for any behavior which "misses the mark," that is, moves a believer away from God rather than closer to Him.<br />
<br />
Thus, in the Orthodox tradition sin is not viewed as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, but rather as an illness that needs healing. Just like a bodily illness, human sinfullness needs individual attention and correction. The ultimate goal for this process is not to win back God's favor, but rather to get back on the path towards God. <br />
<br />
The traditional practice of the Orthodox is to have a spiritual father (or mother) to whom one confesses and who treats the sin on an individual basis. An experienced spiritual father will know how and when to apply strictness in dealing with sin and when to administer mercy.<br />
<br />
===The Incarnation===<br />
Prior to Christ's incarnation on Earth it was man's "fate", when he died, because of the fall of Adam, to be separated from God. Because man introduced something alien to his nature by participation in evil through disobedience to God, mankind placed itself in a terrible and inescapable position. The answer to this problem was for God to raise man's fallen nature, to unite his divine nature with our human nature. This he accomplished through the incarnation, becoming man and yet remaining God. This is why Christ Jesus is referred to as the ''Logos'', the solution to man's problem (one of the several meanings of ''Logos''). It is absolutely fundamental that we accept Christ as both God and Man, both natures complete. This is the only means whereby we could escape the fate of hell. The incarnation changes mankind itself, uniting it to the divine. And now, because of that Incarnation, everything is different: [[St Basil]] states: "We are to strive to become little gods, within God, little jesus christs within Jesus Christ". In other words, we must seek perfection in all things in our lives; we must strive to acquire Godly virtue. God through participation in mankind makes it possible for man to participate in divinity. While it is true that we will not become "separate" gods in the pagan sense we will participate in the divine energies of God (which are not separate from God) and still retain our individuality.<br />
<br />
===The Theotokos===<br />
A great many traditions revolve around the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Ever-Virgin Mary]], The Theotokos, the Birth-giver of God, that are theologically paramount. That she was and remained a Virgin before and after Christ's birth; that in being born, Christ miraculously did no physical harm to her, leaving her virginity intact; That she felt no pain in child birth. Much of the churches beliefs concerning the Virgin Mary are reflected in the apocryphal text, "The Nativity of Mary" which was not included in scripture, but is considered to be accurate in its description of events. The child Mary was consecrated at the age of three to serve in the temple as a temple virgin. Zachariah, then High Priest, did the unthinkable and carried Mary into the Holy of Holies as a sign of her importance – that she herself would become the ark in which God would take form. At the age of twelve she was required to give up her position and marry, but she desired to remain forever a virgin in dedication to God. And so it was decided to marry her to a close relative, Joseph, an uncle or cousin, an older man, a widower, who would care for her and allow her to retain her virginity. And so it was that when the time came she submitted to God’s will and allowed the Christ to take form within her. It is believed that she, in her life, committed no sin; however, the Orthodox do not accept the concept of immaculate conception. The Theotokos was subject to original sin as the Orthodox understand it, but was cleansed of this sin the moment Christ was conceived within her. In the Theology of the Orthodox Church it is most important to understand that Christ, from the moment of conception was 100% God and 100% man. Therefore it is correct to say that Mary is indeed, the Theotokos, the Birth-giver of God, and that she is the greatest of all humans ever to have lived. This term has tremendous theological significance to Orthodox Christians, as it was at the center of the so-called Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries AD. After her great role was accomplished, the Church believes she remained a virgin, continuing to serve God in all ways. She traveled much with her Son, and was present both at his Passion on the Cross and at his ascension into heaven. It is believed that she was the first to know of her son's resurrection – the Archangel Gabriel appearing to her once more and revealing it to her. It is believed she lived to the age of seventy and called all the apostles to her before she died. According to tradition St Thomas arrived late and was not present at her death. Desiring to kiss her hand one last time he opened her tomb but her body was gone. The Orthodox believe she was assumed into heaven bodily, however, unlike in the Roman Catholic Church, it is not a dogmatic prescription and so is usually referred to as the Dormition of the Virgin, not the Assumption.<br />
<br />
===Understanding the term ''mystery''===<br />
<br />
Orthodox beliefs, in general, have a consistency that holds together very well when logical analysis is applied. In fact, a lack of logical sense may be a justifiable reason for rejecting a belief. Such rejected beliefs are called heresy. Orthodox theology is extensive and rich with logical justification based on "the consensus of the Fathers" as described above, however, there are certain places that the Orthodox refuse to delve into simply because they believe that such attempts at understanding are fruitless and in fact often lead to misunderstanding and heresy. Such areas of theology are referred to as "mysteries". Mysteries are not "cop-outs". An example of a cop-out might be an answer such as "God can do whatever he wants to do" in answer to a valid theological question. A mystery, on the other hand usually presents itself when two highly logical points cannot be resolved with one another, yet both points must be true. An good example of this is as follows:<br />
<br />
Christ is 100% man and 100% God. He is 100% present as Jesus Christ, yet he must also be 100% omnipresent at the same time. The Virgin Mary gave birth to God incarnate and is therefore the Mother of God, yet God who is infinite and timeless had no progenetor. <br />
<br />
In order to logically explain our salvation all of these things must be accepted as absolutely true, yet none of them can be explained. Any attempt at explanation leads to one of the many heresies condemned by the church. Examples: <br />
<br />
Christ was born human then made God after his death '''or''' Christ was God and only pretended to be man '''or''' the Virgin Mary gave birth to only the human Jesus (in all these cases human nature is not changed and our salvation is not accomplished). Of course the cop-out that follows such attempts is always, "God can do whatever he wants to do". This has never been acceptable to Orthodox Christians who understand that certain things cannot be explained yet must be true; such are mysteries.<br />
<br />
===The Resurrection===<br />
The Resurrection of Christ is the absolute central event of the Orthodox Church and is understood in absolutely literal terms. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was crucified and died, descended into Hades, battled Death and won. Through these events, He released mankind from the bonds of Hell and then came back to the living as a man and God. That each individual human may partake of this immortality, which would have been impossible without the Resurrection, is the main promise held out by God in his New Covenant with mankind, according to Orthodox Christian tradition.<br />
<br />
In one way or another, every holiday of the Orthodox ecclesiastical year relates to the Resurrection directly or indirectly. Every Sunday of the year is dedicated to celebrating the Resurrection; most Orthodox believers will refrain from kneeling or prostrations on Sundays in observance thereof. The Orthodox tradition puts very little liturgical emphasis on the passion of Christ during the days leading up to the Crucifixion, and instead sees it as necessary stepping-stones to the ultimate victory only days later. However, the passion is seen as a model for the ascetic self-denial that the Orthodox believer is called to live out in his quest for God.<br />
<br />
===Saints, relics, and the deceased===<br />
In the Eastern Orthodox Church a saint is defined as anyone who is currently in Heaven, whether recognized here on earth or not. By this definition, Adam and Eve, Moses, the various Prophets, Martyrs for the Faith, the Angels and Archangels are all given the title of ''Saint''. There is a formal service in the Orthodox Church whereby a saint is recognized by the entire church called "glorification". This does not, however, "make" a saint but simply accords him or her a place on the calendar with regular services in his honor. Recently, in order to avoid abuses, the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] in [[Constantinople]] has begun to follow the longstanding practice of other local Churches by issuing special encyclical letters (''tomoi'') in which the Church acknowledges the popular veneration of a saint. Glorification usually happens after believers have already begun venerating a saint. There are numerous small local followings of countless saints that have not yet been recognized by the entire Orthodox Church. <br />
<br />
A strong element in favor of glorification can be the perceived "miraculous" condition of physical remains (relics), although that alone is not considered sufficient. In some Orthodox countries it is the custom to re-use graves after three to five years due to limited space. Bones are respectfully washed and placed in an ossuary, often with the person's name written on the skull. Occasionally when a body is exhumed something believed to be miraculous occurs to reveal the person's sainthood. There have been numerous occurrences where the exhumed bones are said to suddenly give off a wonderful fragrance, like flowers; or sometimes the body is said to be found incorrupt despite having not been embalmed (traditionally the Orthodox do not embalm the dead) and having been buried for three years. <br />
<br />
For the Orthodox, body and soul both comprise the person, and in the end, body and soul will be reunited; therefore, the body of a saint shares in the holiness of the soul of the saint. <br />
<br />
Because the Orthodox Church shows no true distinction between the living and the dead (believing the saints are alive in Heaven), the Orthodox treat the saints as if they were still here. They venerate them and ask for their prayers, and consider them brothers and sisters in Christ Jesus. Saints are venerated and loved and asked to intercede for salvation, but they are not given the worship accorded to God, because their holiness is believed to come from God. In fact, any who worship, as opposed to venerate, a saint, relics, or icons is to be excommunicated. As a general rule only clergy will touch relics in order to move them or carry them in procession, however, in veneration the faithful will kiss the relic to show love and respect toward the saint. Every altar in every Orthodox church contains relics, usually of martyrs. The Church building interiors are covered with the icons of saints. <br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church practices baptism for infants and adults as the moment one is born into Christ. The person entering the baptismal font is not seen as the same person who emerges, so the person is given a new name, used exclusively and always the name of a saint. As well as birthdays, Orthodox celebrate the day of the saint for whom the person is named (the person's namesday).<br />
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===The Last Things===<br />
Heaven, to Eastern Orthodox, is not a static state. They believe mankind will be restored to perfection, but perfection not as an ultimate end in and of itself; adverse traits will be gone from the human race and man will be as originally intended. Since God's love and wisdom are infinite, the constant progression toward a deeper understanding of that love and wisdom is equated with heavenly bliss. They also believe that for those who reject the love and mercy of God, the experience of His presence will be unbearably painful.<br />
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==Art and Architecture==<br />
===Church buildings===<br />
The church building has many symbolic meanings. Perhaps the oldest and most prominent is the concept that the Church is the Ark (as in Noah’s) in which the world is saved from the flood of temptations. And so, most Orthodox Churches are rectangular in design. Another popular shape, especially for churches with large choirs is the Cross. Architectural patterns may vary in shape and complexity, with chapels sometimes added around the main church, or triple altars, but in general, the symbolic layout of the church remains the same.<br />
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The Church building is divided into three main parts: the Narthex (entrance hall), the Nave and the Altar.<br />
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'''Narthex:''' The Narthex is the connection between the Church and the outside world and for this reason catechumens (pre-baptized Orthodox) and Non-Orthodox stand here (note: the tradition of only allowing confirmed orthodox into the Nave of the church has for the most part fallen into disuse). In monastic churches it is usual for the lay people visiting the monastery to stand in the narthex while the monks or nuns stand in the nave. Separating the narthex from the nave are the "Royal Doors" (from the time of the Byzantine Empire, when the Emperor would enter the main body of Agia Sophia, the Church of holy Wisdom, through these doors and proceed up to the altar to partake of the Eucharist). On either side of this portal are large brass candlestands called menalia which represent the pillars of fire which went before the hebrews into the promised land.<br />
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'''Nave:''' The Nave is the main body of the Church where the people stand during the services. In most Orthodox Churches there are no pews but rather ''stacidia'' (like a high chair with foldup seat - it has arm rests high enough to be used while standing - see the picture of the monks); these were usually found along the walls, to be used only by the aged and infirm. Traditionally there is no sitting during services with the only exceptions being during the reading of the Psalms, and the priest's sermon. The people stand before God. However because of the influence of Roman Catholic and Protestant practices in western countries it is not uncommon to find pews and kneelers in more modern church structures.<br />
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The walls are normally covered from floor to ceiling with icons or wall paintings of saints, their lives, and stories from the Bible. Because the Church is a direct evolution of its jewish roots where men and women stand separately; The Orthodox Church continues this practice of de-emphasizing the "family" with men standing on the right and women on the left. Because of this arrangement it is emphasized that we are all equal before God (Equal distance from the altar), and that the man is not superior to the woman. Once again, because of moder western influence, in many modern churches this traditional practice has been forgotten and families stand together. <br />
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Above the Nave in the Dome of the Church is the icon of Christ the Almighty (''Pantokratoros'' = Ruler of the Universe). Directly hanging below the dome (In more traditional churches) is usually a kind of circular chandelier with depictions of the saints and apostles, called the ''horos'' which represents the Choir of the saints; during certain significant moments of the service, it is swung to symbolically represent the universal participation of the church on earth and the church in heaven. <br />
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'''Iconostasis:''' Traditionally called the ''templon'', it is a screen or wall between the Nave and the Altar, which is covered with icons. There will normally be three doors, one in the middle and one on either side. The central one is traditionally called the "Beautiful Gate" and is only used by the clergy. There are times when this gate is closed during the service and a curtain is drawn. The doors on either side are called the "Deacons Doors" or “Angel Doors” as they often have depicted on them the Archangels Michael and Gabriel. These doors are used by Deacons and servers to enter the Altar. To the left of the Beautiful Gate is the Icon of Christ, then the Icon of St John the Baptist; to the right the Icon of the Mother of God (a standard Eastern Orthodox title for Mary), always shown holding Christ; and then the Icon of the Saint to whom the Church is dedicated (i.e., the patron). There are normally many other icons on the iconostasis but these vary from church to church. Above and behind the iconostasis (if the iconostasis doesn’t reach the ceiling) is the ''Panagia'' (All Holy), the Virgin Mary with Christ blessing all. Oil lamps burn before all the icons.<br />
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'''Altar:''' The term Altar refers to not just the Altar Table but to the whole area behind the Iconostasis: it is the 'Holy of Holies' of the Church. The church, if at all possible is always aligned with the altar facing East. The Priest also faces East when before the Holy Table (away from the congregation) offering prayers for the people to God and then coming out through the Beautiful Gate to give God's 'Good News' (Gospel) to the people. To the left of the Altar Table will be the "''Prosthesis'' Table" (Table of Preparation) where the bread and wine are prepared before the Liturgy (Eucharist) begins.<br />
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===Icons===<br />
Icons are replete with symbolism meant to convey far more meaning than simply the identity of the person depicted, and it is for this reason that Orthodox iconography has become an exacting science of copying older icons rather than an opportunity for artistic expression. The Orthodox believe that the first icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary were painted by [[Luke the Evangelist]]. Orthodox regard their depiction of Christ as accurate, with Christ having brown semi-curly hair, brown eyes, and Semitic features (the Virgin Mary being similar). The personal, idiosyncratic and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Orthodox iconography before the 17th century, when Russian icon painting was strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from both Protestant and Catholic Europe. Greek icon painting also began to take on a strong romantic western influence for a period and the difference between some Orthodox icons and western religious art began to vanish. More recently there has been a strong trend of returning to the more traditional and symbolic representations.<br />
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Icons are not considered by the Orthodox to be "graven images" or idols, and prohibitions against three-dimensional statuary are still in place. Biblical prohibitions against material depictions have been altered by Christ (as God) taking on material form. Also, it is not the wood or paint that are venerated but rather the individual shown.<br />
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Large icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover the inside structure completely. Orthodox homes often likewise have icons hanging on the wall, usually together on an eastern facing wall, and in a central location where the family can pray together.<br />
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Icons are often illuminated with a candle or oil lamp. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for lamps are preferred because they are natural and burn cleanly.) Besides the practical purpose of making icons visible in an otherwise dark church, both candles and oil lamps symbolize the Light of the World which is Christ.<br />
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Tales of miraculous icons that moved, spoke, cried, bled, or gushed fragrant myrrh are not uncommon, though it has always been considered that the message of such an event was for the immediate faithful involved and therefore does not usually attract crowds. Some miraculous icons whose reputations span long periods of time nevertheless become objects of pilgrimage along with the places where they are kept.<br />
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Some of the most venerated Russian Orthodox icons are treated in separate articles.<br />
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'''The Cross:''' The Byzantine (sometimes Russian) style cross is usually shown with a small top crossbar representing the sign that Pontius Pilate nailed above Christ's head, however, instead of the Latin acronym '''INRI''' (''Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum'', meaning "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews") the Greek '''INBI''' or its Slavonic equivalent is used. It is not uncommon, however, for this to be replaced by the phrase "The King of Glory" in order to answer Pilate's mocking statement with Christ's affirmation, "My Kingdom is not of this world". There is also on many Orthodox depictions of the cross a bottom slanting bar. This appears for a number of reasons. First of all, there is enough evidence to show that there was a small wooden platform for the crucified to stand on in order to support his weight; in Christ's case his feet were nailed side by side to this platform with one nail each in order to prolong the torture of the cross. Evidence for this idea comes mainly from two sources, biblical (that in order to cause the victim to die faster their legs were broken so they could not support their weight and would strangle) and tradition (all early depictions of the crucifixion show this arrangement, not the later with feet on top with single nail). It has also been pointed out that the nailed hands of a body crucified in the manner often shown in modern secular art would not support the weight and would tear through, a platform for the feet would relieve this problem. The bottom bar is slanted two reasons, to represent the very real agony which Christ experienced on the cross (a refutation of Docetism) and to signify that the thief on Christ's right chose the right path while the thief on the left did not.<br />
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==Traditions==<br />
===Chanting===<br />
Orthodox services are sung nearly in their entirety. Services consist in part of a dialog between the clergy and the people (often represented by the choir or the Psaltis (Cantor). In each case the text is sung or chanted following a prescribed musical form. Almost nothing is read in a normal speaking voice with the exception of the homily if one is given. The church has developed eight Modes or Tones, (see [[Octoechos]]) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of year, feast days, or other considerations of the Typikon. There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures. It is common, especially in the United States, for a choir to learn many different styles and to mix them, singing one response in Greek, then English, then Russian, etc. This adds to the beauty and universality of the service.<br />
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===Incense===<br />
Incense is burned during all services in the Eastern Orthodox Church. The spiritual significance of incense is simple and straightforward: it symbolizes the congenial ardor that Orthodox believe ought to characterize the life of a believing Christian, as well as evoking Christian integrity and goodness; it is considered prayer rising up to God.<br />
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===Monasticism===<br />
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In the Orthodox Church, monasticism holds a very special and important place. Orthodox monks lead very strict ascetic lives of prayer for the world. Monks and nuns do not usually do social work or teach in school, leaving those for lay people. Monks are considered spiritual warriors using prayer and discipline to conquer their shortcomings. Bishops are often chosen from among monks, and those who are not generally receive the monastic tonsure before their consecrations.<br />
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Many (but not all) Orthodox seminaries are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for ordination with participation in the community's life of prayer. Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called ''hieromonk'' (priest-monk); monks who have been ordained to the deaconate are called ''hierodeacon'' (deacon-monk). Not all monks live in monasteries, some hieromonks serve as priests in parish churches thus practising "monasticism in the world".<br />
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For the Orthodox, ''Father'' is the correct form of address for monks who have been tonsured to the rank of Stavrophore or higher, while Novices and Rassophores are addressed as ''Brother''. Similarly, ''Mother'' is the correct form of address for nuns who have been tonsured to the rank of Stavrophore or higher, while Novices and Rassophores are addressed as ''Sister''. Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called ''monachoi'' (monastics), and their common living space is called a monastery. Some women's monasteries are nearby or even adjoining a men's monastery.<br />
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===Fasting===<br />
The Orthodox seek to recapture paradise through fasting, to regain a measure of purity. Fasting is never seen as earning the believer "points" or the right to salvation; it is merely an exercise in self-denial that serves to rid the believer of his or her ''passions'' (what most modern people would call "addictions"). These often low-intensity and hard-to-detect addictions to food, television or other entertainments, sex, or any kind of self-absorbed pleasure-seeking is seen as one of the most significant obstacles for man seeking closeness to God. Through struggling with fasting the believer comes face to face with the reality of his condition &mdash; the starting point for genuine repentance according to the Eastern Orthodox tradition.<br />
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Fasting is also never looked on as a hardship or punishment but rather a great privilege and joy, although it can be very difficult. Those who for medical reasons (diabetes, for example) cannot fast, often see themselves as missing a great spiritual opportunity. Fasting typically involves differing levels of abstinence depending on the day or season and ranges from a complete fast from all food and drink to abstinence from all animal products (meat, dairy, eggs, etc.), olive oil, and wine. Shellfish and vegetable oils are permitted on certain days and weeks of the fast as is wine. Thus, most fasting guidelines resemble a [[vegan]] diet with all cooking done simply with water but no oil. In addition to restrictions on food, it is generally understood that married couples abstain from sexual relations during a fast (see [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 7:5) and it is often recommended that entertainments or amusements be eliminated altogether during the stricter periods of fasting.<br />
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The time and type of fast is generally uniform for all Orthodox Christians; the times of fasting are part of the ecclesial calendar. There are four major fasting periods during the year. They are:<br />
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*The ''Nativity Fast'' (Advent or Winter Lent) which is the 40 days preceding the Nativity of Christ ([[Christmas]]).<br />
*''Great Lent'' which consists of the 6 weeks (40 Days) preceding Palm Sunday, and Great Week (Holy Week) which precedes Pascha (Easter).<br />
*The ''Apostles' Fast'' which varies in length from 2 to 6 weeks on the Old Calendar. It begins on Monday following the first Sunday after Pentecost and extends to the feast day of Saints Peter and Paul on June 29th. It can virtually disappear on the New Calendar(one of the reasons for the Old Calendar Movement).<br />
*The two-week long Fast preceding the ''Dormition of the Theotokos'' (repose of The Virgin Mary).<br />
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In addition, except during feasting weeks, members of the Orthodox Church fast on every Wednesday in commemoration of Christ's betrayal by [[Judas Iscariot]], and on every Friday in commemoration of his crucifixion. Monastics often include Mondays as a fast day in commemoration of the Angels. <br />
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The number of fast days varies each year, but in general the Orthodox Christian can expect to spend over half the year fasting at some level of strictness.<br />
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===Almsgiving=== <br />
''Almsgiving'' refers to any charitable giving of material resources to those in need. Along with ''prayer'' and ''fasting'', it is considered a pillar of the personal spiritual practices of the Orthodox Christian tradition. Almsgiving is particularly important during periods of fasting, when the Orthodox believer is expected to share the monetary savings from his or her decreased consumption with those in need.<br />
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===Baptism===<br />
Baptism is the rite by which a person's sins are remitted and he is united to the Body of Christ by becoming a member of the Orthodox Church. Holy water is blessed, and the person to be baptized is fully immersed in it three times in the name of the Holy Trinity. This is considered to be a death of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection.<br />
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Children of Orthodox families are normally baptized shortly after birth. Converts from other religions or the unchurched must be received by baptism. Local rules vary for converts from other Christian groups. Depending on the group and the rules of the local Church, such a convert may be received by either baptism, chrismation, or just by confession of the Orthodox faith.<br />
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===Chrismation===<br />
Chrismation (sometimes called confirmation) is the mystery by which a person, who has been baptized is granted the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]] through anointing with Holy Chrism. It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Orthodox Church. As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so chrismation is a person’s participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost.<br />
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A baptized and chrismated Orthodox Christian is a full member of the Church, and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.<br />
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Chrism may be blessed by any bishop, but this is normally done only by the chief hierarch of a local church during Holy Week. Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament.<br />
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===Holy Communion===<br />
The Eucharist is at the center of Orthodox Christianity. In practice, it is partaking of the bread and wine in the midst of the Divine Liturgy with the rest of the church. The bread and wine are believed to be the genuine Body and Blood of the Christ [[Jesus]]. The Eastern Orthodox Church has never described exactly how this occurs, or gone into the detail that the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches have in the West. The doctrine of transubstantiation was formulated after the Great Schism took place, and the Orthodox churches have never formally affirmed or denied it, preferring to state simply that it is a mystery and sacrament.<br />
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Communion is given only to baptized, chrismated Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer, and confession (if of the age of reason, see below). From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive Holy Communion. The priest will administer the gifts with a spoon directly into the receivers mouth from the chalice.<br />
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It is the opinion of some traditionalists that frequent communion is dangerous spiritually if it reflects a lack of piety in approaching the most significant of the Mysteries, which would be damaging to the soul. However, many spiritual advisors advocate frequent reception as long as it is done in the proper spirit and not casually, with full preparation and discernment. Frequent reception is more common now than in recent centuries.<br />
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===Repentance===<br />
Orthodox Christians who have committed sins but repent of them, and who wish to reconcile themselves to God and renew the purity of their original baptisms, quietly confess their sins to God before an icon of [[Jesus]] and in the presence of a priest as a witness, who then prays for God's forgiveness and confirms it with a blessing. Although it is not an essential component of the Mystery, the opportunity is often taken at this time to offer spiritual counsel. Orthodox confession can therefore take the form of a discussion between the confessor and the penitent concerning his or her sins and the best means of overcoming them. Sin is not viewed by the Orthodox as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, or a legal transgression that must be set right by a punitive sentence, but rather as an illness in need of a cure. Penance] is therefore given only occasionally, at the discretion of the confessor, if he believes the sins mentioned in his hearing to be symptomatic of some spiritual illness requiring that treatment. It typically consists of a temporary excommunication, ideally accompanied by intensified prayer and fasting.<br />
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Repentance is essential preparation for receiving the Eucharist (1 Corinthians 11:28) but this is not required of very young children who have not yet attained the age of reason.<br />
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===Marriage===<br />
Orthodox Marriage is not seen as the joining of two people before God; but the Act of God joining the Two as One. Procreation is not seen as the only reason for marriage though it is referenced throughout the standard Orthodoxy Wedding Service. The fact that intimacy between married adults creates a loving bond is paramount, and that union between the two is reflective of our ultimate union with God.<br />
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The Sacrament of Marriage in the Orthodox Church has two distinct parts: The Betrothal and The Crowning.<br />
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The Betrothal includes:<br />
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The Exchange of the Rings <br />
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: The Orthodox Sacrament of Marriage actually consists of two parts: The Exchange of Rings and The Crowning. <br />
: This first part of the wedding service can be equated with the 'civil service'. It takes place in the vestibule (entry) of the church; that area seen by the Church as the closest to the 'outside' world. In this service the Church first prays for the couple. Here the Church recognizes and blesses a union which has begun "in the world" yet awaits fulfillment in the world to come. After being blessed by the priest, the rings are placed on the right hand, the hand with which promises and/or oaths are traditionally made and the hand with which the presence of God is recognized through the sign of the Cross. The rings, of course, are the symbol of betrothal, agreement, authority, and stewardship from the most ancient times. The exchange of the rings gives expression to the fact that in marriage the spouses will constantly be complementing each other. Each will be enriched by the union. The exchange of rings represents a pledge to share and exchange both their physical and spiritual goods, a pledge of eternal love and devotion. <br />
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This is followed by The Procession<br />
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: After the Exchange of the rings the priest leads the couple in procession into the middle of the church. The priest chants Psalm 128, "Blessed is everyone who fears the Lord, who walks in His ways..." This psalm is one of the "Psalms of Ascent" sung by Jewish pilgrims on the way to the Jerusalem Temple. This point in the service most clearly reveals the "action" of the sacrament. The couple brings themselves, each other, their lives, and all that fills their lives, to the altar as an offering to God. As the couple enters into the midst of the Church, their relationship enters into the new reality of God's Kingdom. <br />
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Declaration of Intent and Lighting of Candles <br />
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: Having processed into the church, the couple must individually proclaim, before the assembly, that they have come freely, without constraints or prior commitment, to be joined by God as husband and wife. <br />
: The bride and groom are then handed candles which are held throughout the service. The candles represent the couple's faith and willingness to follow the Light of Truth, Jesus Christ, and that they will have their way through life lighted by the teachings of the Church. <br />
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The Crowning <br />
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: After prayers are offered on their behalf, the groom and bride are crowned by the priest "In the Name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit". These crowns have two meanings. First, they reveal that the man and woman, in their union with Christ, participate in His Kingship. Second, as in the ancient Church, crowns are a symbol of martyrdom. The word "martyr" means witness. The common life of the bride and groom is to bear witness to the Presence of Christ in their lives and in the world. Martyrdom is usually associated with death. So the reality of God's Kingdom in the life of the husband and wife will necessarily take the form of dying to one's self, to one's will, and the giving of one's life totally to the other, and through the other, to Christ. <br />
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The Epistle <br />
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: The epistle is taken from St. Paul's letter to the Ephesians (5:20-33). It presents the cornerstone of the Christian vision of marriage: the love of man and woman parallels the love of Christ and the Church. As Christ gives Himself totally to and for His Church, so the husband is to give himself totally to and for his wife. As the Church, in turn, is subject to Christ, so the wife subjects herself to her husband. Thus the two become one in a life of mutual love and mutual subjection to each other in Christ. <br />
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The Gospel <br />
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: The gospel, from John (2:1-11), is the familiar account of the Wedding Feast at Cana where Christ turns the water into wine. A person must drink water simply to survive. Wine, on the other hand, is more than just a drink that quenches thirst and continues life. Wine is associated with joy, with celebration, with life as being more than mere survival. By His presence at this wedding He changes the union of man and woman into something new. Marriage becomes more than a mere human institution, existing for whatever purpose a society assigns it. It becomes, like the Church Herself, a sign that God's Kingdom has already begun in our midst. <br />
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The Common Cup and the Dance of Isaiah <br />
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: After more prayers, a common cup of wine is blessed and shared by the couple as a sign of their common life together, a sharing of joys and sorrows, successes and failures, hopes and fears. <br />
: This is followed by the triple procession around the center table: the Dance of Isaiah. The hymns return once more to the theme of martyrdom and union with Christ. These are the hymns that, since ancient times, the Church has used to emphasize God's blessings. They are the same ones sung at ordinations into clergy orders and signify that this couple has been set apart from the mundane world to live a life in Christ. <br />
: Throughout the service things are done in threes in remembrance of the Trinity. Man is made in the image and likeness of God. Marriage is intended by God to be an image of the Trinity. It is the union of three persons, not two. Man and woman are one with each other and one with the person of Jesus Christ. <br />
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Removal of the Crowns <br />
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: At the end of the service, the crowns are removed and the priest prays that God will receive these crowns into His Kingdom. The reality of the Kingdom into which the bride and groom have entered is not completely fulfilled, but only begun. Husband and wife must receive God's Kingdom and make it both a present reality and a challenge and goal of their common life. Completion and fulfillment will come when Christ returns in power and glory to complete the establishment of His Kingdom in this world by filling all things with Himself. <br />
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The Greeting of the Couple <br />
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: At the end of the service, the couple stands at the foot of the altar. From the beginning, at the back of the church, they have now progressed to the forefront. Only the eternal Kingdom of Jesus Christ, as signified by the Altar, remains ahead of them. Their final act is to turn and face the assembled Church. Through this sacrament, they have become an icon of the Church and icon of Christ and the assembly comes up to congratulate them and share in their joy. <br />
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Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church allows divorce and allows divorced men and women to remarry under specific circumstances (infidelity, apostacy, etc.) as judged by a Spiritual Court or Bishop. It is regarded as a great tragedy, however, and a second marriage normally requires special permission from a bishop. A second wedding is always performed in the context of repentance on the part of the previously married party, a fact reflected in the ceremony.<br />
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A peculiarity of the Orthodox wedding ceremony is that there is no exchange of vows. There is a set expectation of the obligations incumbent on a married couple, and whatever promises they may have privately to each other are their responsibility to keep.<br />
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===Holy Orders===<br />
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Since its founding, the Church spread to different places, and the leaders of the Church in each place came to be known as ''episkopoi'' (overseers, plural of ''episkopos'', overseer &mdash; Gr. Επίσκοπος), which became "[[bishop]]" in English. The other ordained roles are ''presbyter'' (Gr. πρεσβύτερος, elder), which became "prester" and then "[[priest]]" in English, and ''diakonos'' (Gr. διάκονος, servant), which became "[[deacon]]" in English (see also subdeacon). There are numerous administrative positions in the clergy that carry additional titles. In the Greek tradition, bishops who occupy an ancient See are called [[Metropolitan]], while the lead bishop in Greece is the [[Archbishop]]. Priests can be [[archpriest]]s, [[archimandrite]]s, or [[protopresbyter]]s. Deacons can be [[archdeacon]]s or [[protodeacon]]s as well. The position of deacon is often occupied for life. The deacon also acts as an assistant to a bishop.<br />
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The Orthodox Church has always allowed married priests and deacons, provided the marriage takes place before ordination. In general, parish priests are married as they live in normal society (that is, "in the world" and not a monastery) where Orthodoxy sees marriage as the normative state. Unmarried priests usually live in monasteries since it is there that the unmarried state is the norm, although it sometimes happens that an unmarried priest is assigned to a parish. Widowed priests and deacons may not remarry, and it is common for such a member of the clergy to retire to a monastery. This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who often do not remarry and may become nuns if their children are grown. Bishops are always celibate. Although Orthodox consider men and women equal before God (Gal. 3:28), only men who are qualified and have no canonical impediments may be ordained bishops, priests, or deacons.<br />
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===Anointing with Holy Oil===<br />
Anointing, or Holy Unction, is one of the seven sacraments recognized by the Orthodox Church. The sacrament is not reserved for the dying or terminally ill, but for all in need of spiritual or bodily healing. In some traditions it is also given annually on Holy Wednesday to all believers.<br />
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According to Orthodox teaching, the sacrament of Holy Unction is based on James 5:14-15:<br />
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<blockquote>''Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven.''</blockquote><br />
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==History==<br />
===The early Church===<br />
Christianity first spread in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire. [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and the Apostles traveled extensively throughout the Empire, establishing Churches in major communities, with the first Churches appearing in Antioch, [[Alexandria]] and Jerusalem, and then the two political centres of Rome and [[Constantinople]]. Orthodox believe an Apostolic Succession was established; this played a key role in the Church's view of itself as the preserver of the Christian community. Systematic persecution of Christians stopped in [[313]] when Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] proclaimed the Edict of Milan. From that time forward, the [[Byzantine Emperor]] exerted various degrees of influence over the church. This included the calling of the [[Ecumenical Council]]s to resolve disputes and establish church dogma on which the entire church would agree. Sometimes [[Patriarch]]s (often of [[Constantinople]]) were deposed by the emperor; at one point emperors sided with the [[iconoclasm|iconoclasts]] in the eighth and ninth centuries.<br />
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Several [[Ecumenical Council]]s were held between [[325]] (the [[First Council of Nicaea]]) and [[787]] (the [[Second Council of Nicaea]]), which to Orthodox constitute the definitive interpretation of Christian dogma. Orthodox thinking differs on whether the [[Fourth Council of Constantinople|Fourth]] and [[Fifth Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] Councils of Constantinople were properly Ecumenical Councils, but the majority view is that they were merely influential, and not bindingly dogmatic.<br />
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Orthodox Christian culture reached its golden age during the high point of [[Byzantine Empire]] and continued to flourish in Russia, after the [[fall of Constantinople]]. Numerous autocephalous jurisdictions were established in Eastern Europe and Slavic areas.<br />
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The Orthodox jurisdictions with the largest number of adherents in modern times are the Russian and the Romanian Orthodox churches. The most ancient of the Orthodox churches of today are the Churches of [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], Georgia, Antioch and Jerusalem.<br />
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===The Roman/Byzantine Empire===<br />
Several doctrinal disputes from the 4th century onwards led to the calling of [[Ecumenical council]]s. The Church in Egypt (Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following the [[Council of Chalcedon]] ([[451]]), over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures of [[Jesus]]. Eventually this led to each group having its own Patriarch (Pope). Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs were called "Melkites" (the king's men, because Constantinople was the city of the emperors) [not to be confused with the Melkite Catholics of Antioch], and are today known as the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, until recently led by Pope Petros VII. Those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon are today known as the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, led by Pope Shenouda III. There was a similar split in Syria. Those who disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called "Oriental Orthodox" to distinguish them from the Eastern Orthodox, who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as "monophysites", "non-Chalcedonians", or "anti-Chalcedonians", although today the Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is monophysite and prefers the term "miaphysite", to denote the "joined" nature of Jesus. Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches formally believe themselves to be the continuation of the true church and the other fallen into heresy, although over the last several decades there has been some reconciliation.<br />
<br />
In the 530s the [[Hagia Sophia|Church of the Holy Wisdom]] was built in [[Constantinople]] under emperor [[Justinian I]].<br />
<br />
===The Seven Ecumenical Councils=== <br />
Eastern Orthodox Christianity recognizes only these seven ecumenical councils.<br />
#The [[First Ecumenical Council|first]] of the Seven Ecumenical Councils was that convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine at Nicea in 325, condemining the view of Arius that the Son is a created being inferior to the Father.<br />
#The [[Second Ecumenical Council]] was held at Constantinople in 381, defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other persons of the Trinity.<br />
#The [[Third Ecumenical Council]] is that of Ephesus in 431, which affirmed that Mary is truly "Birthgiver" or "Mother" of God (''[[Theotokos]]''), contrary to the teachings of Nestorius.<br />
#The [[Fourth Ecumenical Council]] is that of Chalcedon in 451, which affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of the two natures, contrary to Monophysite teaching.<br />
#The [[Fifth Ecumenical Council]] is the second of Constantinople in 553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship ot the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, etc.<br />
#The [[Sixth Ecumenical Council]] is the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites.<br />
#The [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]] was called under the Empress Regent Irene in 787, known as the second of Nicea. It affirmed the making and veneration of [[icon]]s, while also forbidding the worship of icons and the making of three-dimensional statuary. It reversed the declaration of an earlier council that had called itself the Seventh Ecumenical Council and also nullified its status (see separate article on [[Iconoclasm]]). That earlier council had been held under the iconoclast Emperor [[Constantine V]]. It met with more than 340 bishops at Constantinople and Hieria in 754, declaring the making of icons of Jesus or the saints an error, mainly for Christological reasons.<br />
<br />
===The Great Schism===<br />
In the 11th century the [[Great Schism]] took place between Rome and [[Constantinople]], which led to separation of the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Churches of the East. There were doctrinal issues like the [[filioque clause]] and the authority of the Pope involved in the split, but these were exacerbated by cultural and linguistic differences.<br />
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The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the sacking of Constantinople by the [[Fourth Crusade]] in [[1204]]. This Fourth Crusade had the Latin Church directly involved in a military assault against the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, and the Orthodox Patriarchate. The sacking of the [[Hagia Sophia|Church of Holy Wisdom]] and establishment of the [[Latin Empire]] in [[1204]] is viewed with some rancor to the present day. In [[2004]], Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by [[Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople]]. (Many things that were stolen during this time: relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Catholic churches in Western Europe. <br />
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In [[1453]], the last of the Roman Empire (with its capital at Constantinople) fell to the [[Ottoman Turk]]s. By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia; and so Moscow, called the Third Rome, became a major new center of the Church at that time.<br />
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===Conversion of the Slavs===<br />
In the ninth and tenth centuries, Orthodoxy made great inroads into Eastern Europe, including Kievan Rus'. This work was made possible by the work of Saints [[Saint Cyril|Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]], who translated the [[Bible]] and many of the prayer books into the Slavonic vernacular of the Slavs of the region of [[Thessaloniki]], which became the literary language Old Church Slavonic. Originally sent to convert the Slavs of Great Moravia, they were forced to compete with Frankish missionaries from the Roman diocese. Their disciples were driven out of Great Moravia in AD [[886]]. <br />
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Some of the disciples, however, reached Bulgaria where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian Tsar Boris I who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methoduis managed to prepare and instruct the future Slav Bulgarian clergy into the Glagolitic alphabet and the biblical texts and in AD [[893]], Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the Slavonic language as the official language of the church and the state. The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other Slavic peoples, most notably the Rus', predecessors of Belarusians, Russians and Ukrainians.<br />
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Slavic missionaries had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than Latin as the Roman priests did, or [[Greek language|Greek]]. Today the Russian Orthodox Church, in spite of 70 years of persecution under the atheistic government of the USSR, is the largest of the Orthodox Churches.<br />
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===The Church in North America===<br />
<br />
The Russian Orthodox Church sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century. Among the first was Saint Herman of Alaska. This established missionary precedence for the Russian Orthodox Church in the Americas, and Eastern Orthodox Christians were under the ''omophor'' (Church authority and protection) of the Patriarch of Moscow. The Russian Orthodox Church was devastated by the Bolshevik Revolution. One side effect was the flood of refugees from Russia to the United States, Canada, and [[Europe]]. Among those who came were Orthodox lay people, deacons, priests, and bishops. In [[1920]] Patriarch Tikhon issued an ''ukase'' (decree) that Orthodox Christians under his leadership but outside of Russia should seek refuge with whatever Orthodox jurisdiction that would shield them from Communist control. The various national Orthodox communities thus were permitted as an emergency measure to look towards their immigrant homelands for ecclesiastic leadership rather than be tied to Russia. Some of the Russian Orthodox formed an independent [[synod]] that became the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]] (ROCOR). Some of the Russian Orthodox remained in communion with Moscow and were granted autocephaly in [[1970]] as the Orthodox Church in America (OCA, though rarely referred to as "TOCA"). However, recognition of this autocephalic status is not universal, as the Ecumenical Patriarch (under whom is the [http://www.goarch.org Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]) and some other jurisdictions have not officially accepted it. The reasons for this are complex; nevertheless the Ecumenical Patriarch and the other jurisdictions remain in communion with the OCA.<br />
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Today there are many Orthodox churches in the United States and Canada that are still bound to the Greek, Antiochian, or other overseas jurisdictions; in some cases these different overseas jurisdictions will have churches in the same U.S. city. However, there are also many "pan-orthodox" activities and organizations, both formal and informal, among Orthdox believers of all jurisdictions. One such organization is SCOBA, the Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas, which comprises North American Orthodox bishops from nearly all jurisdictions. <br />
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In June of 2002, the Antiochian Orthodox Church granted self-rule to the Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North America. Some observers see this as a step towards greater organizational unity in North America. <br />
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During the past 50 years there have come into existence so-called Western Orthodox Churches (a term not in use by the majority of Orthodox Christians, including those within Western Rite Orthodox parishes) in North America. These are Orthodox Christians who use the Western forms of liturgy yet are Orthodox in their theology. The Antiochian Orthodox Church, The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, and the Holy Orthodox Catholic and Apostolic Church of America (formerly connected with the Vicar Bishop of the (Western) Orthodox Church of France-ECOF), all have Western Rite parishes. The last jurisdiction currently has no canonical ties to the majority of Orthodox and is not viewed by them as fully Orthodox.<br />
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Eastern Orthodoxy has had a history in China and East Asia as well.<br />
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===The Church today===<br />
The various local churches within the Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in full communion with one another, with exceptions such as lack of relations between the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) and the Moscow Patriarchate (the Orthodox Church of Russia) dating from the 1920s and due to the subjection of the latter to the hostile soviet regime. However, attempts at reconciliation are being made between the ROCOR and the Moscow Patriarchate with the ultimate purpose of reunification. Further tensions exist in the philosophical differences between the New Calendarists and the Moderate Old Calendarists.<br />
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== See also ==<br />
* [[Timeline of Orthodoxy in Greece]]<br />
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== External links ==<br />
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===Informational and further reading===<br />
* [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/ OrthodoxWiki]<br />
* [http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/ Orthodox Research Institute]<br />
* [http://www.hostkingdom.net/orthodox.html List of most patriarchates]<br />
* [http://home.att.net/~sergei592/East.html The Orthodox Tradition]<br />
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/denominations/orthodoxy.htm Eastern Orthodox Christianity]<br />
* [http://www.orthodoxlinks.info/ Directory of Orthodox Internet Resources]<br />
* [http://www.theandros.com Theandros—An Online Journal of Orthodox Christian Theology and Philosophy] <br />
* [http://www.smart.net/~mmontes/ortheast.html The Orthodox Ecclesiastical Calendar]<br />
*[http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/ Orthodox Christian Information Center]<br />
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===Local Orthodox Churches===<br />
* [http://www.ec-patr.gr/ Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]<br />
** [http://www.goarch.org/ Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]<br />
** [http://www.ort.fi/ Church of Finland] (Finnish only)<br />
** [http://www.acrod.org/ American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese]<br />
* [http://www.greekorthodox-alexandria.org/ Church of Alexandria]<br />
* [http://www.antiochpat.org/english/sitefiles/ Church of Antioch]<br />
** [http://www.antiochian.org/ Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America]<br />
* [http://www.patriarchofjerusalem.com/en/home/homefr.htm Church of Jerusalem]<br />
* [http://www.mospat.ru/e_startpage/index.html Russian Orthodox Church]<br />
** [http://www2.gol.com/users/ocj/TheOrthodoxChurchinJapan.htm Orthodox Church in Japan]<br />
** [http://www.orthodox.org.ua/ Church of Ukraine] (Ukrainian only)<br />
* [http://www.patriarchate.ge/indexe.htm Church of Georgia]<br />
* [http://www.serbian-church.net/ Church of Serbia]<br />
* [http://www.patriarhia.ro/ Church of Romania]<br />
* [http://bulch.tripod.com/boc/ Church of Bulgaria]<br />
* [http://www.orthodoxalbania.org/ Church of Albania]<br />
* [http://www.ecclesia.gr/ Church of Greece]<br />
* [http://www.orthodox.pl/ Church of Poland] (Polish only)<br />
* Church of the [http://www.pravoslavnacirkev.cz/ Czechlands] and [http://www.orthodox.sk/ Slovakia] (Czech or Slovak only)<br />
* [http://www.oca.org/ Orthodox Church in America]<br />
* [http://www.russianorthodoxchurch.ws/english Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]<br />
* [http://mpc.org.mk/ Macedonian Orthodox Church]<br />
* [http://www.ecclesiagoc.gr/ Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece]<br />
* [http://www.indianorthodoxchurch.com/ Indian Orthodox Church]<br />
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===Organizations===<br />
* [http://www.scoba.us/ Standing Conference of Orthodox Bishop of America]<br />
* [http://www.iocc.org/ International Orthodox Christain Charities]<br />
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[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]<br />
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<div>'''Aeolis''' ([[Ancient Greek]] '''Αιολίς''' '''''Aiolís''''') or '''Aeolia''' ([[Ancient Greek]] '''Αιολία''' '''''Aiolía''''') was an area that comprised the west and northwestern region of [[Asia Minor]], mostly along the coast, and also several offshore islands (particularly [[Lesbos]]), where the [[Aeolians|Aeolian]] [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] city-states were located. Aeolis incorporated the southern parts of [[Mysia]] which bounded it to the north, [[Ionia]] to the south, and [[Lydia]] to the east. In early times, the Aeolians' twelve most important cities were independent, and formed a league: [[Cyme]] (also called [[Phriconis]]), [[Larissae]], [[Neonteichos]], [[Temnus]], [[Cilla]], [[Notium]], [[Aegiroessa]], [[Pitane (Aeolis)|Pitane]], [[Aegeaeae]], [[Myrina]], [[Gryneia]], and [[Smyrna]] ([[Herodotus]], 1.149).<br />
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According to Homer's description, [[Odysseus]], after his stay with the [[Cyclopes]], reached the island of [[Aiolos]], who provided him with the west wind [[Zephyr]].<br />
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===Natives of Aeolis===<br />
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*[[Autolycus of Pitane]]<br />
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[[Category: Ancient Greek geography]]<br />
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<div>'''Aristagoras''' was the leader of [[Miletus]] in the late [[6th century BC]] and early [[5th century BC]].<br />
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He was the son of Molpagoras, and son-in-law (and nephew) of [[Histiaeus]], whom the Persians had set up as tyrant of Miletus. Aristagoras gained control of the city when Histiaeus was appointed as an advisor to the Persian king [[Darius I]]. When [[Naxos]] revolted in [[502 BC]], the Persian overlords of the island asked Aristagoras for help, and he agreed in the assumption that he would be recognized as ruler of the island. He allied with [[Artaphernes]], the Persian satrap of Lydia, and was given a fleet of ships. Unfortunately for the invasion, Aristagoras quarrelled with the admiral Megabates, who then informed the Naxians that the fleet was coming. <br />
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The invasion failed and the alliance with Artaphernes fell apart. In an attempt to save himself from the wrath of Persia he began to plan a revolt with the Milesians and the other [[Ionia]]ns. Meanwhile, Histiaeus, from his post in Persia, hoped to begin his own revolt in Miletus, so that the Persians would crush it and reinstall him as tyrant. In Miletus in [[499 BC]], Aristagoras was supported by most of the citizens, except the historian [[Hecataeus]]. A democracy was established, and soon the other Ionian cities had also revolted against the Persians, thus beginning the [[Ionian Revolt]].<br />
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Aristagoras then travelled to mainland [[Greece]] to find support for the revolt. In [[Sparta]] he met with the king [[Cleomenes I]], and argued that a pre-emptive invasion of Persia would be easy; there were many riches along the way, and the capital of Susa was "only" three months away. Cleomenes rejected his offer, but Aristagoras found more success in [[Athens]], because, according to [[Herodotus]], it was easier to convince an assembly of thousands of Athenians than it was to convince one Spartan king.<br />
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With Athenian help Aristagoras led the attack on [[Sardis]], the Persian capital in Ionia. However, when the Ionian Revolt was eventually put down (and Histiaeus restored as tyrant), Aristagoras fled to [[Thrace]], where he attempted to establish a colony on the [[Strymon]] river, at the same site as the later Athenian colony of [[Amphipolis]]. He was killed by the Thracians while attacking a neighbouring Thracian town.<br />
----<br />
Another '''Aristagoras''' was the Persian tyrant of [[Cyme]] in Ionia, who was overthrown by the above Aristagoras during the Ionian Revolt.<br />
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[[Category:Ancient Greeks]]<br />
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<div>'''Artaki''' is a city in Northwestern [[Asia Minor]], on the Cyzicus peninsula, on the coast of the [[Sea of Marmara]].<br />
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Prior to [[1922]] and the [[Asia Minor disaster]], the city's population was close to 80% Greek and Artaki was the seat of a Bishopric. Patriarch [[Joachim II of Constantinople|Joachim II]] made Artaki his home between his two terms as Patriarch of Constantinople.<br />
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Greeks who fled Artaki during the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]] or left after the exchange of populations, established the town of [[Nea Artaki]] on the island of [[Euboea]].<br />
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Today the city is known as Erdek and it belongs to Balikesir Province. It is a resort town<br />
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[[Category:Asia Minor]]<br />
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<div>'''Aydini''' or Aidini (Turkish Aydın) is a city in [[Asia Minor]]/western Turkey and the seat of the Turkish province of the same name (Aydin Province). The population of the city is 143,267 according to the [[2000]] census. <br />
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In ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] sources, the name of the city is given as '''Anthea''' and '''Euanthia'''. During the Seleucid period, it received the name '''Antiochia''' (Greek: Αντιόχεια). It has also borne the names '''Seleucia''' and '''Erynina'''. [[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/gazetteer/0355.html]] It was known in the Roman and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Empires as '''Tralles''' or '''Tralleis''', and for a time as '''Caesarea'''. <br />
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==Early history==<br />
<br />
Strabo describes Tralles as being founded by [[Argos|Argives]] and Trallians, a [[Thrace|Thracian]] tribe. With the rest of Lydia, the city fell to the Persian Empire. After its success against [[Athens]] in the [[Peloponnesian War]], [[Sparta]] unsuccessfully sought to take the city from the Persians. In [[334 BC]], Tralles surrendered to [[Alexander the Great]] without resistance and therefore was not sacked. [[Antigonus]] held the city from [[313 BC|313]] to [[301 BC]]. The Seleucids held the city down to [[190 BC]] when it fell to [[Pergamos]]. From [[133 BC|133]] to [[129 BC]], the city supported [[Aristonicus]], a pretender to the Pergamene throne, against the Romans. After the Romans defeated him, they revoked the city's right to mint coins.<br />
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Tralles was a conventus for a time under the Roman Republic, but [[Ephesus]] later took that position. The city was taken by rebels during the Mithridatic War during which many Roman inhabitants were killed. Tralles suffered greatly from an earthquake in [[27 BC]]. Augustus provided funds for its reconstruction after which the city thanked him by renaming itself '''Caesarea'''.<br />
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Strabo describes the city as a prosperous trading center in antiquity. Strabo lists famous residents of the city, including [[Pythodorus]] (native of Nysa), and orators [[Damasus Scombrus]] and [[Dionysocles]]. Several centuries later, [[Anthemius of Tralles]], architect of the [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]], was born at Tralles. <br />
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An early bishop Polybius (fl. ca. [[105]]) is attested by a letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the church at Tralles. The city was officially Christianized, along with the rest of Caria, early after the conversion of [[Constantine]], at which time the see was confirmed. Among the recorded bishops are: Heracleon ([[431]]), Maximus ([[451]]), Uranius ([[553]]), Myron ([[692]]), Theophylactus ([[787]]]), Theophanes and Theopistus both [[ninth century]], and John ([[1230]]). Tralles remains a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church (''Tralles in Asia'' or ''Trallianus in Asia''); the seat is vacant following the death of the last bishop in [[1974]]. [[http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/d3t69.html]]<br />
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After the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in [[1071]], the [[Byzantine Empire]] was in full retreat throughout Anatolia. The Seljuks took Tralles and it was integrated into the Sultanate of Rüm. [[Manuel I Comnenus]] retook the city for Byzantium in the later half of the [[12th century]]. It remained Byzantine until it was finally taken by the Turks in [[1282]].<br />
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Prior to [[1922]] and the [[Asia Minor Disaster]], Aydin retained a sizeable Greek presence. According to [[1912]] figures, the Sandjak of Aydın had a total population of 220,000, in which 39,000-54,500 according to varying sources, were Greeks. During the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)|Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922]], some heavy fighting took place in and around Aydın. Aydın Greeks have been exchanged with Turks living in [[Greece]] under the [[1923]] agreement for exchange of populations between the two countries.<br />
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==Persons==<br />
*[[Eftychia Papayiannopoulou]], the songwriter was born in Aydin.<br />
*[[Dido Sotiriou]], the writer was born in Aydin<br />
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==References==<br />
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* Blue Guide, Turkey, The Aegean and Mediterranean Coasts (ISBN 030304892), pp. 353-54.<br />
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==External links==<br />
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*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/gazetteer/0355.html Hazlitt's Classical Gazetteer]<br />
* [http://www.aydin.gov.tr Pages in English, French, German and Dutch of Aydın Governorship]<br />
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[[Category:Asia Minor]]<br />
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<div>'''Ayval&#305;k''' is a small sea-side town in the North West of [[Asia Minor]] opposite the Greek island of [[Lesbos]].<br />
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Ayvali was founded towards the turn of the 16th towards the 17th Century by people from [[Lesbos]]. At the outbreak of the Greek [[War of Independence]], it was home to 30,000 Greeks and was the second - after [[Smyrna]] - most important economic and cultural centre of Hellenism in [[Asia Minor]].<br />
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Ayvali was destroyed by Turkish troops on [[June 2]], [[1821]], in retaliation for the burning of a warship nearby. It was inhabited again in [[1827]].<br />
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Until [[1922]] [[Ayvalik]] (Greek: &#922;&#965;&#948;&#969;&#957;&#943;&#949;&#962; Kydonies or, more commonly, "Ayvali") was largely populated by [[Greeks]] with few Turks. <br />
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The Greeks were forced to leave after the [[Asia Minor Disaster]] of [[1922]]. Since then the population is Turkish. It is a popular holiday resort for Turks and has several historical Ottoman Mosques.<br />
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==Persons==<br />
*[[Fotis Kontoglou]]<br />
*[[Elias Venezis]] - writer<br />
*[[Stratos Payoumtzis]], [[rebetika]] singer<br />
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[[Category:Asia Minor]]<br />
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<div>The '''Bosporus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Βόσπορος'') is a strait that separates the European part (Rumeli) of Turkey from its Asian part ([[Anatolia]]), connecting the [[Sea of Marmara]] (Turkish: Marmara Denizi, Greek: Θάλασσα του Μαρμαρά) with the [[Black Sea]] (Turkish: Karadeniz, Greek: Μαύρη Θάλασσα, Εύξεινος Πόντος). It is 30 km long, with a maximum width of 3,700 metres at the northern entrance, and a minimum width of 750 metres between Anadoluhisar&#305; and Rumelihisar&#305;. The depth varies from 36 to 124 metres in midstream.<br />
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The shores of the strait are heavily populated as the city of [[Istanbul]] (population at least 11 million) straddles it.<br />
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Two bridges cross the Bosporus Strait. The first, Bosporus Bridge, is 1074 meters long and was completed in [[1973]]. The second, Fatih Sultan Mehmed (Bosporus II) bridge, is 1090 meters long, and was completed in [[1988]] about five kilometers north of the first bridge.<br />
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"Marmaray", a 13.7 kilometer-long rail tunnel is under construction and expected to be completed in [[2008]]. Approximately 1,400 metres of the tunnel will run under the strait, at a depth of about 55 meters.<br />
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==Associations==<br />
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The name, meaning ''ox passage'', is associated with a [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] about [[Io (mythology)|Io's]] travels after [[Zeus]] turned her into an ox for her protection. <br />
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It is also said in myth that floating rocks once crushed any ship that attempted passage of the Bosporus until the hero [[Jason]] obtained passage by trickery, whereupon the rocks became fixed, and Greek access to the Black Sea was opened.<br />
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==History== <br />
The Bosporus formed about [[5600 BC]] when the rising waters of the Mediterranean/Sea of Marmara breached through to the Black Sea, which at the time was a low-lying body of fresh water.<br />
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Some have argued that the resulting massive flooding of the inhabited and probably farmed northern shores of the Black Sea is the historic basis for the flood stories in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' and the Bible. <br />
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As the narrowest point of passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosporus has always been of great commercial and strategic importance. The Greek city-state of [[Athens]] in the fifth century BC, which was dependent on grain imports from Scythia, therefore maintained critical alliances with cities which controlled the straits, such as the [[Megara|Megarian]] colony [[Byzantium]]. <br />
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The strategic significance of the strait was one of the factors in the decision of the Roman Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] to found there in [[330]] AD his new capital, [[Constantinople]]. This city was in [[1453]] to become the capital of the Ottoman Empire, and as they closed in on the Byzantine city the Ottomans constructed a fortification on each side of the strait, Anadoluhisari ([[1393]]) and Rumelihisari ([[1451]]).<br />
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The strategic importance of the Bosporus remains high, and control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878, as well as of the attack of the Allied Powers on the [[Dardanelles]] in [[1915]] in the course of the [[First World War]]. Several international treaties have governed vessels using the waters, including the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits, signed in [[1936]]. <br />
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[[Category:Asia Minor]]<br />
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<div>'''Cerasus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Κερασούς'' or ''Κερασούντα'', Turkish ''Giresun'') is a town in northeastern Turkey with 90,000 inhabitants (2003 estimate) on the [[Black Sea]]. It is the capital of Giresun Province. It lies along the Black Sea about 110 miles (175 km) west of [[Trabzon]].<br />
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Cerasus and its surrounding region has a rich agriculture, specializing in cherries, hazelnuts and walnuts, as well as hides and timber. It has become an important port since the construction of an artificial harbour in the [[1960s]].<br />
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The English word ''cherry'', French ''cerise'', Spanish ''cereza'' and Southern Italian dialect ''cerasa'' (standard Italian ''ciliegia'') all come from Classical Greek κέρασος 'cherry', which has been identified with the ancient name of [[Cerasus]]. The cherry was first exported to Europe from Cerasus in Roman times. The town was also known as '''Kerasounta''' during the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period and, under that name, was the second city of the [[Empire of Trebizond]].<br />
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== History ==<br />
The older parts of the city lie on a peninsula crowned by a ruined Byzantine fortress, sheltering the small natural harbour. Nearby is Giresun Island, in ancient times called Ares. Cerasus was known to the ancient Greeks as Choerades or Pharnacia. Its history goes back to the 2nd century BC, when it was founded by Greek colonists from [[Sinope]]. Old Cerasus lies on a peninsula dominated by a [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] fortress. Nearby is Giresun Island, the only major [[Black Sea]] island in Turkish territory. According to legend, the island was sacred to the [[Amazons]], who had dedicated a temple to the war god [[Ares]] here. Even today, fertility rites are performed here every May, now shrouded as a popular Muslim practice, but really a 4,000 year old celebration.<br />
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Prior to [[1924]] and the compulsory exchange of populations between [[Greece]] and Turkey, the city had a large Greek population. Many, after the exchange, founded and settled in [[Nea Kerasounta]], [[Preveza prefecture]], [[Epirus]].<br />
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[[Category:History of Anatolia]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Clazomenai&diff=38416Clazomenai2009-03-08T15:55:50Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
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<div>'''Clazomenae''' (modern '''Kelisinan'''), was an ancient town of [[Ionia]] and a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis (Confederation of Twelve Cities), on the [[Gulf of Smyrna]], about 20 miles west of that city.<br />
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Though not in existence before the arrival of the [[Ionians]] in Asia, its original founders were largely settlers from [[Phlius]] and [[Cleonae]]. It stood originally on the isthmus connecting the mainland with the peninsula on which [[Erythrae]] stood; but the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the Persians, removed to one of the small islands of the bay, and there established their city. This island was connected with the mainland by [[Alexander the Great]] by means of a pier, the remains of which are still visible.<br />
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During the [[5th century]] it was for some time subject to the [[Athens|Athenians]], but about the middle of the [[Peloponnesian War]] ([[412 BC]]) it revolted. After a brief resistance, however, it again acknowledged the Athenian supremacy, and repelled a [[Lacedaemon]]ian attack.<br />
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Under the Romans, Clazomenae was included in the province of Asia, and enjoyed an immunity from taxation. The site can still be made out, in the neighbourhood of Vourla, but nearly every portion of its ruins has been removed. It was the birthplace of the philosopher [[Anaxagoras]]. It is famous for its painted terracotta sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of Ionian painting in the 6th century BC.<br />
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[[Category:Ancient Greek colonies]]<br />
[[Category:Ionian colonies]]<br />
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[[Category:History of Anatolia]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Cnidus&diff=38415Cnidus2009-03-08T15:55:25Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
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<div>'''Knidos''' or '''Cnidus''' (Turkish '''Tekir''') is an ancient [[Greece|Greek]] city in [[Asia Minor]], once part of the country of Caria. It is situated at the extremity of the long Datça peninsula, which forms the southern side of the [[Sinus Ceramicus]] or Gulf of [[Kos]].<br />
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It was built partly on the mainland and partly on the Island of [[Triopion]] or Cape Krio, which in Antiquity communicated with the continent by a causeway and bridge, and now by a narrow sandy isthmus. By means of the causeway the channel between island and mainland was formed into two harbours, of which the larger, or southern, was further enclosed by two strongly-built moles that are still in good part entire.<br />
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The extreme length of the city was little less than a mile, and the whole intramural area is still thickly strewn with architectural remains. The walls, both of the island and on the mainland, can be traced throughout their whole circuit; and in many places, especially round the acropolis, at the northeast corner of the city, they are remarkably perfect. The first Western knowledge of the site was due to the mission of the Dilettante Society in 1812, and the excavations executed by C. T. Newton in 1857-1858.<br />
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The [[agora]], the theatre, an odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a temple of the Muses, a temple of Aphrodite and a great number of minor buildings have been identified, and the general plan of the city has been very clearly made out. The most famous statue by [[Praxiteles]], the [[Aphrodite of Knidos]], was made for Cnidus. It has perished, but late copies exist, of which the most faithful is in the Vatican Museums. In a temple enclosure Newton discovered a fine seated statue of [[Demeter]], which he sent back to the British Museum, and about three miles south-east of the city he came upon the ruins of a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure of a lion carved out of one block of [[Pentelic marble]], ten feet in length and six in height, which has been supposed to commemorate the great naval victory, the [[Battle of Cnidus]] in which [[Conon]] defeated the [[Lacedaemon]]ians in [[394 BC]].<br />
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Knidos was a city of high antiquity and as a Hellenic city probably of Lacedaemonian colonization. Along with [[Halicarnassus]] and Kos, and the [[Rhodes|Rhodian]] cities of [[Lindos]], [[Kamiros]] and [[Ialyssos]] it formed the [[Dorian Hexapolis]], which held its confederate assemblies on the Triopian headland, and there celebrated games in honour of [[Apollo]], [[Poseidon]] and the [[nymph]]s.<br />
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The city was at first governed by an oligarchic senate, composed of sixty members, and presided over by a magistrate; but, though it is proved by inscriptions that the old names continued to a very late period, the constitution underwent a popular transformation. The situation of the city was favourable for commerce, and the Knidians acquired considerable wealth, and were able to colonize the island of [[Lipara]], and founded a city on Corcyra Nigra in the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]]. They ultimately submitted to [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]], and from the [[battle of Eurymedon]] to the latter part of the [[Peloponnesian War]] they were subject to [[Athens]].<br />
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In 394 BC, off the port, Conon fought the battle which destroyed [[Sparta]]n hegemony. The Romans easily obtained their allegiance, and rewarded them for help given against [[Antiochus]] by leaving them the freedom of their city. During the Byzantine period there must still have been a considerable population: for the ruins contain a large number of buildings belonging to the Byzantine style, and Christian sepulchres are common in the neighbourhood.<br />
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[[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]], the astronomer, [[Ctesias]], the writer on [[History of Persia|Persian history]], and [[Sostratus of Cnidus|Sostratus]], the builder of the celebrated [[Lighthouse of Alexandria|Pharos at Alexandria]], are the most remarkable of the Knidians mentioned in history.<br />
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==References==<br />
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*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/greece/hetairai/tivoli.html The ''Knidia'' of Praxiteles and its setting]<br />
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<div>:''This article is about the ancient city of Colophon. For the publishing information found in a book, see [[colophon (book)]].''<br />
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'''Colophon''' (Gr. Κολοφών) was a titular see of [[Asia Minor]]. It was one of the twelve [[Ionia]]n cities, between [[Lebedos]] (ruins near Hypsili-Hissar) and [[Ephesus]] (Aya-Solouk). <br />
The term "colophon" derives from the [[Late Latin]] ''colophon'', from the [[Greek language | Greek]] &kappa;&omicron;&lambda;&omicron;&phi;&omega;&nu; (meaning "summit", "top", or "finishing"). It should not be confused with [[Colophon]], an ancient city in [[Asia Minor]], the name of which derives from the Latin ''colophonium'', meaning "colophony", or rosin.<br />
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In Greek antiquity two sons of [[Codrus]], king of [[Athens]], established a colony there. It was the birthplace of the philosopher [[Xenophanes]] and the poet [[Mimnermus]]. It was destroyed by [[Lysimachus]], one of the successors of [[Alexander the Great]]. [[Notium]] served as the port, and in the neighbourhood was the village of Clarus, with its famous temple and oracle of [[Apollo Clarius]], where [[Calchas]] vied with [[Mopsus]] in divinatory science.<br />
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The cavalry of Colophon was renowned. Its pine trees supplied a rosin or ''colophony'' highly valued for the strings of musical instruments. In Roman times Colophon lost its importance; the name was transferred to the site of Notium, and the latter name disappeared between the [[Peloponnesian War]] and the time of Cicero.<br />
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The "Notitiae episcopatuum" mentions Colophon or Colophone, as late as the twelfth or thirteenth century, as a suffragan of Ephesus. Lequien (I, 723) gives the names of only four Bishops: St. Sosthenes (I Cor., i, 1) and St. Tychicus (Tit., iii, 12) are merely legendary; Euthalius was present at the [[Council of Ephesus]] in 431, and Alexander was alive in 451.<br />
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The ruins of the city are at the Castro of Ghiaour-Keui, an insignificant village in the vilayet of Smyrna, caza of Koush-Adasi.<br />
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''This article is a copyedited version of the text from the public domain [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04128d.htm]''<br />
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<div>'''Cyzicus''' was an ancient town of [[Mysia]] in [[Asia Minor]], situated on the shoreward side of the present peninsula of Kapu-Dagh (Arctonnesus), which is said to have been originally an island in the [[Sea of Marmara]], and to have been artificially connected with the mainland in historic times.<br />
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It was, according to tradition, occupied by [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] settlers at the coming of the [[Argonauts]], and in [[756 BC]] the town was founded by [[Greece|Greeks]] from [[Miletus]].<br />
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Owing to its advantageous position it speedily acquired commercial importance, and the gold staters of Cyzicus were a staple currency in the ancient world till they were superseded by those of [[Philip II of Macedon]]. During the [[Peloponnesian War]] (431-404 BC) Cyzicus was subject to the [[Athens|Athenians]] and [[Lacedaemon]]ians alternately, and at the peace of [[Antalcidas]] (387 BC), like the other Greek cities in Asia, it was made over to Persia.<br />
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The history of the town in Hellenistic times is closely connected with that of the Attalids of [[Pergamos]], with whose extinction it came into direct relations with Rome. Cyzicus was held for the Romans against Mithradates in 74 BC till the siege was raised by Lucullus: the loyalty of the city was rewarded by an extension of territory and other privileges. Still a flourishing centre in Imperial times, the place appears to have been ruined by a series of earthquakes--the last in AD 1063--and the population was transferred to [[Artaki]] at least as early as the 13th century, when the peninsula was occupied by the Crusaders.<br />
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The site is now known as ''Bal-Kiz'' and entirely uninhabited, though under cultivation. The principal extant ruins are the walls, which are traceable for nearly their whole extent, a picturesque amphitheatre intersected by a stream, and the substructures of the temple of Hadrian. Of this magnificent building, sometimes ranked among the seven wonders of the ancient world, thirty-one immense columns still stood erect in 1444. These have since been carried away piecemeal for building purposes.<br />
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[[Category:Ancient Greek colonies]]<br />
[[Category:Asia Minor]]<br />
[[Category:History of Anatolia]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Hellespont&diff=38412Hellespont2009-03-08T15:53:57Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
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<div>'''Hellespont''' (i.e. "Sea of Helle"), was the ancient name of the [[Dardanelles]]. It was so-called from [[Helle]], the daughter of [[Athamas]], who was drowned here.<br />
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[[Herodotus]] tells us that c. [[482 BC]], [[Xerxes]], king of Persia and son of [[Darius]], had two bridges built across the width of the Hellespont at [[Abydos]] in order that his huge army, ostensibly made of 5 million men, could cross from Persia into [[Greece]]. These bridges were both destroyed by a storm (vii.34), but after the sea was punished by receiving 300 lashes and a pair of fetters thrown into it, engineers finished them. In addition to punishing the Hellespont, Xerxes had the heads of those responsible for building the bridges cut off. [[The Histories of Herodotus]] vii.33-37 and vii.54-58 gives details of Xerxes' building and crossing of the bridges. <br />
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The Hellespont was also the body of water which [[Hero and Leander|Leander]] would cross in order to tryst with his beloved, the priestess [[Hero and Leander|Hero]]. More recently, the Hellespont was famously swum by [[Lord Byron]].<br />
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At the opening of the straights a sea battle was fought in the [[First Balkan War]], between the Greek and Ottoman navies with the Greeks defeating the Turks. A few years later, the Turks successfully repelled a British naval invasion force inside the Hellespont at the Battle of Canakale.<br />
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==External Link==<br />
*[http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/map13ga.html Map of Hellespont]<br />
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[[Category:Asia Minor]]<br />
[[Category:Greek mythology]]<br />
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[[Category:History of Greece]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Halicarnassus&diff=38411Halicarnassus2009-03-08T15:52:39Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
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<div>'''Halicarnassus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] Αλικαρνασσός) is an ancient Greek city on the southwest coast of Caria, [[Asia Minor]], on a picturesque advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf (Gulf of [[Kos|Cos]]). It originally occupied only the small island of [[Zephyria]] close to the shore, now occupied by the great castle of St. Peter, built by the [[Knights of Rhodes]] in [[1404]]; but in course of time this island was united to the mainland and the city extended so as to incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians.<br />
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==Early History: Founding==<br />
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About the foundation of Halicarnassus various traditions were current; but they agree in the main point as to its being a [[Dorian]] colony, and the figures on its coins, such as the head of [[Medusa]], [[Athena]] and [[Poseidon]], or the trident, support the statement that the mother cities were [[Troezen]] and [[Argos]]. The inhabitants appear to have accepted as their legendary founder Anthes, mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the title of ''Antheadae''.<br />
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At an early period Halicarnassus was a member of the Doric Hexapolis, which included [[Kos|Cos]], [[Cnidus]], [[Lindus]], Camirus and [[Ialysus]]. But when one of the citizens, Agasicles, chose to take home the prize tripod which he had won in the Triopian games instead of dedicating it, according to custom, to the Triopian Apollo, the city was cut off from the league. In the early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of [[Artemisia I of Caria]], who made herself famous as a naval commander at the [[battle of Salamis]]. Of Pisindalis, her son and successor, little is known; but [[Lygdamis]], who next attained power, is notorious for having put to death the poet [[Panyasis]] and causing [[Herodotus]], the greatest of Halicarnassians, to leave his native city (c. [[457 BC]]).<br />
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==Persian Rule==<br />
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In the [[5th century BC]] Halicarnassus and other Dorian cities of Asia were to some extent absorbed by the [[Delian League]], but the peace of [[Antalcidas]] in 387 made them subservient to Persia; and it was under [[Mausolus]], a Persian satrap who assumed independent authority, that Halicarnassus attained its highest prosperity. Struck by the natural strength and beauty of its position, Mausolus removed to Halicarnassus from [[Mylasa]], increasing the population of the city by the inhabitants of six towns of the Leleges. He was succeeded by [[Artemisia II of Caria]], whose military ability was shown in the stratagem by which she captured the Rhodian vessels attacking her city, and whose magnificence and taste have been perpetuated by the "[[Mausoleum of Maussollos|Mausoleum]]," the monument she erected to her husband's memory.<br />
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==Macedonian Influence==<br />
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One of her successors, [[Pixodarus of Caria|Pixodarus]], tried to ally himself with the rising power of [[Macedon]], and is said to have gained the momentary consent of the young [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] to wed his daughter. The marriage, however, was forbidden by [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip]]. During the early years of Alexander's campaigns, [[Memnon of Rhodes|Memnon]], the paramount satrap of Asia Minor, had taken refuge with the Persian fleet in Halicarnassus. As soon as he had reduced [[Ionia]], Alexander demanded Halicarnassus to surrender; and on its refusal took the city after hard fighting and devastated it. As he was not able to reduce the citadel, Alexander was forced to leave it blockaded. He handed the government of the city back to the family of Mausolus, as represented by [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], sister of the latter. Not long afterwards we find the citizens receiving the present of a gymnasium from [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], and building in his honour a ''stoa'' or portico. Halicarnassus never recovered altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes it as almost deserted.<br />
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==Later Years==<br />
Halicarnassus fell to the Ottoman Turks, under Suleyman the Magnificent, in [[1522]]. Four centuries later, after [[World War I]], it came temporarily under Italian control. The Italians withdrew as the [[Treaty of Sevres]] became unenforceable and later the city's Greek population also left after the exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey. Many of them settled outside [[Heraklio]], [[Crete]], where they founded [[Nea Alikarnassos]].<br />
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==Archeological Notes & Restorations==<br />
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The site is now occupied in part by the town of Bodrum; but the ancient walls can still be traced round nearly all their circuit, and the position of several of the temples, the theatre, and other public buildings can be fixed with certainty.<br />
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From the ruins of the Mausoleum sufficient has been recovered by the excavations carried out in [[1857]] by CT Newton to enable a fairly complete restoration of its design to be made. The building consisted of five parts&#8212;a basement or podium, a pteron or enclosure of columns, a pyramid, a pedestal and a chariot group. The basement, covering an area of 114 feet by 92, was built of blocks of greenstone and cased with marble. Round the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary. The pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of the Ionic order, enclosing a square cena. Between the columns probably stood single statues. From the portions that have been recovered, it appears that the principal frieze of the pteron represented combats of Greeks and [[Amazons]]. In addition, there are also many life-size fragments of animals, horsemen, etc., belonging probably to pedimental sculptures, but formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above the pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or pedestal. <br />
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On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of Mausolus himself and an attendant. The height of the statue of Mausolus in the British Museum is 9'9" without the plinth. The hair rising from the forehead falls in thick waves on each side of the face and descends nearly to the shoulder; the beard is short and close, the face square and massive, the eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth well formed with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly composed. All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have been proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan, is obviously in error in many respects; and that of Oldfield, though to be preferred for its lightness (the Mausoleum was said anciently to be "suspended in mid-air"), does not satisfy the conditions postulated by the remains. The best on the whole is that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler, published in 1900; but fresh studies have since been made (see below).<br />
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==References ==<br />
*CT Newton and RP Pullan, ''History of Discoveries at Halicarnassus'' (1862&#8212;1863) <br />
*J Fergusson, ''The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored'' (1862) <br />
*E Oldfield, "The Mausoleum," in ''Archaeologia'' (1895) <br />
*F. Adler, ''Mausoleum zu Halikarnass'' (1900) <br />
*JP Six in ''Journ. Hell. Studies'' (1905) <br />
*WB Dinsmoor in ''Amer. Journ. of Arch.'' (1908) <br />
*JJ Stevenson, ''A Restoration of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus'' (1909) <br />
*JBK Preedy, "The Chariot Group of the Mausoleum," in ''Journ. hell. Stud.'', 1910.<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/halicarnassus/halicarnassus.html Halicarnassus] by Jona Lendering<br />
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Turkey/_Periods/Greek/_Texts/LETGKB/Mausoleum*.html The Tomb of Mausolus] (W.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;Lethaby's reconstruction of the Mausoleum, 1908)<br />
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[[Category:Dorian Hexapolis]]<br />
[[Category:History of Anatolia]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Ionian_Revolt&diff=38410Ionian Revolt2009-03-08T15:52:07Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
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<div>The '''Ionian Revolts''' were triggered by the actions of [[Aristagoras]], the tyrant of the [[Ionia]]n city of [[Miletus]] at the end of the [[6th century BC]] and the beginning of the [[5th century BC]]. They constituted the first major conflict between [[Greece]] and Persia.<br />
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==The Revolt of Naxos==<br />
In [[502 BC]], the people of [[Naxos]], an island in the [[Aegean Sea]] controlled by the Persian Empire, revolted. The former rulers of Naxos appealed to [[Aristagoras]], the Greek tyrant of the [[Ionia]]n city-state of [[Miletus]], for aid. Aristagoras agreed, hoping to annex Naxos for himself once the conflict was resolved.<br />
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In order to prosecute the campaign, Aristagoras, in turn, sought out the aid of [[Artaphernes]], the satrap of [[Lydia]] and brother to [[Darius I of Persia]]. Artaphernes agreed to supply Aristagoras with a fleet of ships under the command of the esteemed Persian admiral [[Megabates]]. In order to secure the alliance, however, Aristagoras not only offered to share with Artaphernes the spoils of annexing Naxos, but also promised to reduce the [[Cyclades]] and perhaps [[Euboea]] herself. This was a promise Aristagoras could not keep unless the expedition were successful.<br />
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While preparing for the campaign, however, Aristagoras managed to offend Megabates, and the admiral secretly informed the Naxians of the coming invasion. As a result, when the fleet arrived, they were met with unexpected preparation and resistance. In [[499 BC]] after four months, the abortive expedition was forced to retreat.<br />
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==The Ionian Revolt==<br />
With the failure of his attempt to intervene in Naxos, [[Aristagoras]] found himself in dire straits: unable to repay Artaphernes, he had alienated the Persian government and placed himself in imminent danger. In a desperate attempt to save himself, Aristagoras chose to incite his own subjects, the [[Ionia|Ionian Greeks]], to revolt against their Persian masters. He was also aided by his father-in-law [[Histiaeus]], the former tyrant of Miletus who was now an advisor to Darius.<br />
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In [[499 BC]] Aristagoras called a council of the leading citizens of Miletus and laid out a plan of rebellion. They all came to support idea of revolt, except (famously) for the historian [[Hecataeus]]. Aristagoras, who had already dispatched soldiers to arrest the leaders of [[Mylasa]], [[Termera]], and [[Mytilene]], laid down his Persian governorship, and the city adopted a democratic form of government.<br />
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The revolt spread quickly through the whole of Ionia, and the Greeks had soon found universal freedom from the Persian governors/tyrants. They realized, however, that the Persian Empire would soon be sending a military expedition to reclaim their cities. As a result, Aristagoras travelled to [[Greece]] in an effort to garner support. There he repeated his former tactics of offering money he did not have, alienating [[Sparta]], but gaining the support of [[Athens]] and [[Eretria]].<br />
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==The Sack of Sardis==<br />
An Athenian and Eretrian fleet sailed Athenian troops to [[Ephesus]]. There they joined with a force of [[Ionians]] and marched upon Artaphernes' capital of [[Sardis]]. Artaphernes -- who had sent most of his troops to siege Miletus -- was taken by surprise. Despite his disadvantage, however, Artaphernes was able to retreat to the citadel and hold it. Although the Greeks were unable to take the citadel, they were free to pillage the town. During the pillaging, fires set throughout the city spread out of control and burned Sardis to the ground.<br />
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(It is said that when Darius, the Persian Emperor, heard of Sardis being burnt by the Athenians he swore vengeance upon them, and tasked a servant with reminding him three times each day of his vow. In some accounts, Darius is entirely unaware of the existence of Athenians before the attack -- so vast was the Persian Empire, and so minor were the Greek peoples.)<br />
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Having met with some measure of success, the Greek troops were forced to return to Ephesus as Persian reinforcements approached. On their way, however, they were ambushed by the Persian army and disastrously defeated. The Athenian troops rapidly effected a retreat onto their vessels, and returned to Greece.<br />
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==The Revolt Spreads==<br />
With the burning of Sardis, the Ionian Revolt spread to the Greek cities in [[Cyprus]], as well as those surrounding the [[Hellespont]] and [[Propontis]].<br />
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==The End of the Revolt==<br />
Although, for a time, it appeared that the Greek city-states had earned their independence, in reality there was no way they could resist the might of the Persian Empire, and this now turned solidly against them. Cyprus was the first to be crushed, and siege was subsequently laid to most of the other cities along the coast. At this point, Aristagoras abandoned the revolt and fled to [[Thrace]].<br />
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By the sixth year of the revolt ([[494 BC]]), Artaphernes had successfully captured several of the revolting city-states and was now laying siege to Miletus. In [[494 BC]], the decisive [[Battle of Lade]] was fought at the island of [[Lade]], near Miletus' port. Although out-numbered, the Greek fleet appeared to be winning the battle until the ships from [[Samos]] and [[Lesbos]] retreated. The sudden defection turned the tide of battle, and the remaining Greek fleet was completely destroyed. Miletus surrendered shortly thereafter, and the Ionian Revolt came to an end.<br />
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A year after the capture of Miletus, ''The Capture of Miletus'' -- a play by the poet [[Phrynichos]] -- was performed in Athens, reducing the entire amphitheater to tears. The Ionian Revolt, although ultimately a failure for the Ionian Greeks, was a touchstone for both Persia and Greece. As such, it marks the beginning of the [[Persian Wars]].<br />
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<div>[[Image:Tu-map.png|thumb|300px|Map of Turkey]]Anatolia ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ανατολή ''anatolē'' or ''anatolí'', "rising of the sun" or "East"; compare "Orient" and "Levant", by popular etymology Turkish associated with Anadolu to ''ana'' "mother" and ''dolu'' "filled"), also called by the Latin name of '''Asia Minor''', is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to the Asian portion of Turkey.<br />
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Asia Minor (Anatolia) describes the peninsula, on the West side of Asia, that starts at an imaginary line from the Gulf of Alexandretta until [[Trabzon]] on the Black Sea. It is surrounded by the Black Sea on the North, the [[Aegean Sea]] on the West and the Mediterranean on the South.<br />
On the Western side it nearly touches the continent of Europe from which it is separated by the [[Bosporus]], the Sea of Marmara ([[Propontis]]) and the Dardanelles ([[Hellespont]]).<br />
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Because of its strategic location at the intersection of Asia and Europe, Anatolia has been a cradle for several civilizations since prehistoric ages.<br />
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Greeks first settled in the southwest part of Anatolia around the time of the Doric invasion of mainland Greece (1100 BC). They were followed, from the 9th until the 6th Century BC, by waves of [[Ionians]], [[Aeolians]] and [[Dorians]] who colonised the western coast building important cities and establishing a civilisation equal, if not better than, that of mainland Greece. The Greek cities, along with the rest of Asia Minor, were subjugated by the Persians under Cyrus the Great. They were liberated by [[Alexander the Great]] and, after his death, became part of the Seleucid Kingdom. Following four centuries of Roman rule, Asia Minor became part of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Persians, Arabs, Seljuk and Ottoman Turks tried to conquer Asia Minor and finally the latter managed to accomplish it over several centuries. The Greek presence remained however, until [[1922]] (see [[Asia Minor disaster]]).<br />
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Today, the inhabitants of Anatolia are mostly native speakers of the Turkish language, which was introduced with the conquest of Anatolia by Turkic peoples and the rise of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the 13th century. However, Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century. A significant Kurdish ethnic and linguistic minority still exists in the south eastern regions.<br />
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==Important Greek cities of Asia Minor (antiquity)==<br />
*[[Miletus]]<br />
*[[Clazomenai]]<br />
*[[Colophon]]<br />
*[[Halicarnassus]]<br />
*[[Ephesus]]<br />
*[[Pergamos]]<br />
*[[Cyzicus]]<br />
*[[Smyrna]]<br />
*[[Phocaea]]<br />
*[[Philadelphia]]<br />
*[[Kios]]<br />
*[[Chalkedon]]<br />
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<div>'''Magnesia on the Maeander''' was an ancient Greek city in [[Asia Minor]], located on the [[Maeander]] river upstream from [[Ephesus]]. It was founded by colonists from [[Magnesia]], also known as the [[Magnetes]] in [[Greece]], who provided its name.<br />
It lay within [[Ionia]], but because it had been settled by [[Aeolia|Aeolians]] from Magnesia of Greece, was not accepted into the Ionian League.<br />
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During its existence, Magnesia was subject first to the Lydians, then to the Persians. In later years, Magnesia on the Maeander, with its similarly named neighbor [[Magnesia (Asia Minor)|Magnesia by Mt Sipylus]], supported the Romans in the Second Mithridatic War.<br />
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Gyges, king of Lydia captured it and afterward it suffered from the Cimmerian raids, and was often under the control of the Persians. [[Themistocles]] retired to Magnesia. There was a Temple of [[Artemis]] but little remains at the site today.<br />
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Magnesia was also the source for the mysterious stones that could attract or repel each other, and thus its name came to be used for the phenomenon known as '''magnetism'''.<br />
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<div>'''Magnesia''' was a city of Lydia, situated about 65 km northeast of [[Smyrna]] on the river [[Hermus]] at the foot of [[Mount Sipylus]]. Nowadays this is the location of Manisa in Turkey, population 214,000.<br />
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No mention of the town is found till [[190 BC]], when [[Antiochus the Great]] was defeated in the [[battle of Magnesia]] by the Roman consul Lucius Scipio Asiaticus. It became a city of importance under the Roman dominion and, though nearly destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, was restored by that emperor and flourished through the Roman empire. It was one of the few towns in this part of [[Asia Minor]] which remained prosperous under the Turkish rule. The most famous relic of antiquity is the [[Niobe of Sipylus]] on the lowest slopes of the mountain about 6 km east of the town. This is a colossal seated image cut in a niche of the rock, of Hittite origin, and perhaps that called by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] the very ancient statue of the Mother of the Gods, carved by [[Broteas]], son of [[Tantalus]], and sung by [[Homer]]. Near it lie many remains of a primitive city, and about a kilometer east is the rock-seat conjecturally identified with Pausanias' [[Throne of Pelops]]. There are also hot springs and a sacred grotto of [[Apollo]].<br />
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During the [[Asia Minor Expedition]] of [[1919]] - [[1922]], Magnesia was occupied on [[May 25]], [[1919]] by the Greek Army. Before the population exchange, it had a Greek minority comprising roughly 10% of the total population.<br />
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<div>The '''Meander River''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Μαίανδρος) is the classical name for the modern-day Büyük Menderes River in southwestern Turkey. It rises in west central Turkey, near the ancient Phrygian city of [[Celaenae]] (now Dinar, Turkey) flowing west into the [[Aegean Sea]] near the ancient [[Ionia]]n city of [[Miletus]]. Its winding back and forth course gave rise to the word [[meander]].<br />
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<div>'''Lampsacus''' (also '''Lampsakos'''; was an ancient [[Greece|Greek]] city strategically located on the eastern side of the [[Hellespont]] in the northern Troad. The name has been transmitted in the nearby modern town of Lapseki.<br />
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Originally known as '''Pityusa''' or '''Pityussa''', it was colonized from [[Phocaea]] and [[Miletus]]. During the [[6th century BC|6th]] and [[5th century BC]], Lampsacus was successively dominated by Lydia, Persia, [[Athens]], and [[Sparta]]; [[Artaxerxes I]] assigned it to [[Themistocles]] with the expectation that the city supply the Persian king with its famous wine.<br />
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Lampsacus joined the [[Delian League]] after the [[battle of Mycale]], and paid a tribute of twelve talents, a testimony to its wealth, and it had a gold coinage in the [[3rd century BC]], an activity only available to the more prosperous cities. A revolt against the Athenians in [[411 BC]] was put down by force.<br />
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In [[196 BC|196]] the Romans defended the town against [[Antiochus the Great]], and it became an ally of Rome; Cicero (''2 Verr.'' i. 24. 63) and Strabo (13. 1. 15) attest its continuing prosperity under Roman rule.<br />
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Lampsacus was also notable for its worship of [[Priapus]], who was said to have been born there.<br />
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[[Category:History of Anatolia]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Koutali&diff=38404Koutali2009-03-08T15:46:35Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
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<div>'''Koutali''' (Turkish ''Ekinlik'') is an island on the [[Sea of Marmara]] (Propontis) off the coast of [[Asia Minor]].<br />
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Originally (7th Century BC) Koutali and the surrounding islands were colonised by settlers from [[Miletus]]. In [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] times the islands were known for the white marble they produced which was used in many churches built at that time.<br />
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Patriarch [[Athemius VI]] was born in Koutali as was 19th Century legendary strongman [[Panagis Koutalianos]].<br />
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Prior to [[1922]], the island was inhabited by 2,000 Greeks. After the [[Asia Minor Disaster]] and the exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey, many were resettled on the island of [[Lemnos]] where they established the town of [[Nea Koutali]].<br />
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<div>'''Kios''' (Turkish ''Gemlik'') is a city in [[Asia Minor]], on the [[Sea of Marmara]]). It has a long history, being mentioned by [[Homer]], [[Aristoteles]] and [[Strabo]]. <br />
Legend has it that the city was founded by [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]] on their way to retrieve the golden fleece from Colchis.<br />
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An important chain in the ancient silk road, it became known as a wealthy city. Kios had a population of over 20,000 (mostly Greeks) in [[1922]]. After the [[Asia Minor disaster]], its refugees founded the town of [[Nea Kios]] in the [[Argolis prefecture]] in [[Greece]]. <br />
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==Persons==<br />
*[[Yiannis Papaioannou (rebetika)|Yiannis Papaioannou]]<br />
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<div>'''Ephesus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Έφεσσος'''; was one of the great cities of the [[Ionia]]n Greeks in [[Asia Minor]], located in Lydia where the Cayster river flows into the [[Aegean Sea]] (in modern day Turkey). It was founded by colonists principally from [[Athens]]. The ruins of Ephesus are a major tourist attraction, especially for people travelling to Turkey by cruise ship via the port of Kusadasi.<br />
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==Ancient Ephesus==<br />
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Ephesus is believed by many to be the Apasa (or ''Abasa'') mentioned in Hittite sources as the capital of the kingdom of Arzawa. [[Mycenae]]an pottery has been found in excavations at the site. The many-breasted "Lady of Ephesus", identified by Greeks with [[Artemis]], was venerated in the [[Temple of Artemis]], the largest building of the ancient world, according to [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (4.31.8) and one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]], of which scarcely a trace remains.<br />
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==Roman Ephesus==<br />
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Beginning in the Roman Republic, Ephesus was the capital of proconsular Asia, which covered the western part of Asia Minor. The city bore the title of "the first and greatest metropolis of Asia." It was distinguished for the [[Temple of Artemis]], who had her chief shrine there, for its library, and for its theatre, which was the largest in the world, capable of holding 25,000 spectators. It was, like all ancient theatres, open to the sky. Here were exhibited the fights of wild beasts and of men with beasts. The population of Ephesus has been estimated to be in the range of 400,000 to 500,000 inhabitants in the year 100 AD, making it one of the largest cities of the day. Also built in Ephesus around this time were the Roman Baths, of interest is what is believed to be the first instance of indoor plumbed toilets.<br />
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Ephesus was an important center for early Christianity. St. Paul used it as a base. He became embroiled in a dispute with artisans, whose livelihood depended on the Temple of Artemis there ([[Acts]] 19:23&ndash;41), and wrote [[1 Corinthians]] from Ephesus. Later Paul wrote to the Christian community at Ephesus (Book of Ephesians). <br />
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''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' notes, "the Apostle and Evangelist John lived in Asia Minor in the last decades of the first century and from Ephesus had guided the Churches of that province...After Domitian's death the Apostle returned to Ephesus during the reign of Trajan, and at Ephesus he died about A.D. 100 at a great age". Ephesus was one of the seven cities addressed in Book of Revelation.<br />
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There is also a letter written by [[Ignatius of Antioch]] to the Ephesians in the early 2nd century CE, that begins with, "Ignatius, who is also called Theophorus, to the Church which is at Ephesus, in Asia, deservedly most happy, being blessed in the greatness and fulness of God the Father, and predestinated before the beginning of time, that it should be always for an enduring and unchangeable glory" (''Letter to the Ephesians''). <br />
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The house of the Virgin Mary, about 7 km from Selçuk, is said by the Roman Catholic Church to have been the last home of the Virgin Mary and is a popular place of pilgrimage.<br />
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Ephesus was the setting for the Third Ecumenical Council in [[431]], which resulted in the condemnation of Nestorius.<br />
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The Roman city of Ephesus was abandoned in the 6th century CE when the harbor completely filled in with river silt (despite repeated dredges during the city's history), removing its access to the [[Aegean Sea]].<br />
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==Modern Ephesus==<br />
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A part of the site of this once famous city is now occupied by a small Turkish town, Selçuk, which is also the site of the St. John's Basilica.<br />
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It is a vast site, not yet completely excavated but what is visible gives some idea of its original splendour and the names associated with it are evocative of its former life. The amphitheatre is huge and in a very outstanding position which dominates the view down Harbour Street leading to the harbour, long since silted up.<br />
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The Celcius Library, whose facade has been carefully reconstructed from all original pieces, was built by a Roman in memory of his father. It is spectacular. The building faces east so that the reading rooms could make best use of the morning light. An underground tunnel leads from the library to a nearby building believed to have been a drinking establishment or brothel.<br />
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It is unfortunate that the Temple of [[Artemis]], one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]], is represented only by one inconspicuous column, owing to the removal of the vast majority of material by the British. Most of the artwork from the temple currently resides in the British Museum.<br />
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''This article uses text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed''<br />
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== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.turkishodyssey.com/places/aegean/aegean3.htm Ephesus] <br />
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ephesus Photographic tour of the historic city]<br />
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/selcuk The nearby modern town, with some nearby other monuments]<br />
* [http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_45 Pictures of Ephesus]<br />
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[[Category:History of Anatolia]]</div>Angellight 888http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php?title=Miletus&diff=38401Miletus2009-03-08T15:44:21Z<p>Angellight 888: </p>
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<div>'''Miletus''' was an ancient Greek city on the western coast of [[Asia Minor]] (in what is now the Aydin Province of Turkey), near the mouth of the [[Maeander River]]. The site was inhabited since the [[Bronze age]]. <br />
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[[Homer]] records that at the time of the [[Trojan War]], it was a [[Carian]] city ([[Iliad]], book II). Later, it would become one of the twelve [[Ionia]]n cities of [[Asia Minor]]. Its gridlike layout, planned by [[Hippodamos]], later became the basic layout for Roman cities. The city also once possessed a harbour, before it was clogged by alluvium brought by the Meander.<br />
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Scholars have generally agreed that the Anatolian city ''Milawata'' mentioned in Hittite records should be identified with Miletus. In the [[1500s BC]], settlers from [[Crete]] moved there. In the [[6th century BC]], Miletus had become a maritime empire, having founded several colonies. It came under Persian rule until [[479 BC]], when the Greeks liberated it . During this time several other cities were formed by Milesian Greek settlers, spanning across [[Asia Minor]] and even into Crimea.<br />
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Miletus was an important center of philosophy and science, producing such men as [[Thales]], [[Anaximander]] and [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]].<br />
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In [[334 BC]], the city was liberated from Persian rule by [[Alexander the Great]].<br />
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The New Testament mentions Miletus as the site where the apostle Paul met with the elders of the church of [[Ephesus]] before his capture in Jerusalem and travel to Rome for trial, as well as the city where Trophimus, one of Paul's travelling companions, recovered while sick.<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://rjohara.net/coins/ Ancient Coins of Miletus]<br />
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<div>'''Tuzla''' is a village in [[Asia Minor]] on the [[Sea of Marmara]] ([[Propontis]]), facing the Prince's Islands.<br />
In [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] times it was known as ''Akritas''.<br />
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Prior to [[1924]] and the population exchange between [[Greece]] and Turkey, the population of Tuzla was largely Greek. Many residents had migrated to the United States between 1890 and 1924. Those that stayed were resettled in [[Nea Philadelphia]], [[Athens]], in [[Thessaloniki]] and elsewhere in Greece. On the other hand, many ethnic Turks from Greece were resettled in Tuzla.<br />
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Today Tuzla could be considered a suburb of Istanbul as the great city has spread considerably into [[Anatolia]]. Many wealthy residents of Istanbul, however, have taken up residence in Tuzla as it has never lost its small-town atmosphere.<br />
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==Persons==<br />
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*[[Kleanthis Maropoulos]], [[AEK FC|AEK]] footballer of the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] was born here in [[1919]]. <br />
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<div>'''Scutari''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] Σκούταρι, Turkish: Uskudar) is a large and densely populated suburb of [[Constantinople|Istanbul]], on the [[Anatolia]]n shore of the [[Bosphorus]] right opposite the heart of the great city, next to Kadıköy. It is home to about half a million people.<br />
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==History==<br />
Scutari (ancient ''Chrysoupolis'') was a city in [[Bithynia]] founded in the 7th century BC, in a valley leading down to the Bosphorus shore, by the inhabitants of the Greek colony of [[Chalcedon]] and was first known as Chrysoupolis (city of Gold) (perhaps because it was a wealthy little port, or because of the way it shone when viewed from [[Byzantium]] at sunset). The city was used as a harbour and shipyard and was an important staging post in the wars between the Greeks and Persians. In 410 BC Chrysopolis was walled by the [[Athens|Athenian]] general [[Alcibiades]]. As its larger and more important neighbor across the Bosphorus grew, the town became a toll-booth for the Bosphorus and later became the first point of defence of Byzantium against the Ottoman armies. Byzantine armies were stationed here, but to no avail; by the time Constantinople was conquered by the Ottomans in [[1453]], Scutari had already been in Turkish hands for 100 years.<br />
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In the Ottoman period Scutari was one of the three communities outside the city walls (along with Eyüp and [[Galata]]). The area was a major burial ground, and today many large cemeteries remain including Karacaahmet Mezarlığı, Bülbülderesi Mezarlığı, and a number of Jewish and Christian cemeteries. <br />
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<div>'''Samsun''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] Σαμψούς ''Sampsus'' or Σαμψούντα ''Sampsounta'') is a city in northern Turkey, on the coast of the [[Black Sea]], with a population of 396,900 as of [[2004]]. It is the capital city of Samsun Province and an important port. Samsun was founded as the colony '''Amisos''' (alternative spelling ''Amisus'') by settlers from [[Miletus]] in the [[7th century BC]]. It was later a part of the [[Pontus]] realm. <br />
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==Geography==<br />
Samsun is situated between two river deltas which jut into the [[Black Sea]]. It is located at the end of an ancient route from [[Cappadocia]]: the ''Amisos'' of antiquity lay on the headland northwest of the modern city. To Samsun's west, lies the Kızılırmak ("Red River", the ''Halys'' of antiquity), one of the longest rivers in [[Anatolia]] and its fertile delta. To the east, lie the Yeşilırmak ("Green River", the ''Iris'' of antiquity) and its delta.<br />
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==History==<br />
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Samsun's ideal combination of fertile ground and shallow waters has attracted numerous trade interests. Greek colonists settled in the [[6th century BC]] and established a flourishing trade relationship with the ancient peoples of [[Anatolia]]. At that time, Samsun was part of the Greek colony of Amisus. In the [[3rd century BC]], Samsun came under the expanded rule of the [[Kingdom of Pontus]]. The Kingdom of Pontus had been part of the empire of [[Alexander the Great]]. However, the empire was fractured soon after Alexander's death in the [[4th century BC]]. At its height, the kingdom controlled the north of central Anatolia and mercantile towns on the northern Black Sea shores.<br />
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It became part of the Roman Empire in 47 BC, and the [[Byzantine Empire]] after the division of the Roman Empire. In 1200 Samsun was captured by the Seljuks, to be later replaced by the İlhanlılar. Samsun was incorporated into the network of Genoese trading posts and was taken by the Ottomans in the beginning of the [[15th century]]. Before leaving, the Genoese razed the town.<br />
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Samsun was the city where Mustafa Kemal initiated the Turkish War of Independence, on [[19 May]], [[1919]], touching off the second pogrom against the Pontian Greeks. May 19th is both celebrated as a national day in Turkey and a day of commemoration of the Pontus massacre in Greece. <br />
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At the time, the population of the city was 35,000 with just over half that number being Greeks.<br />
It was the second largest city in the Pontus region after [[Trapezus]].<br />
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Greeks from Samsun founded [[Nea Sampsounta]] in [[Preveza prefecture]], [[Epirus]], [[Greece]].<br />
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<div>'''Phocaea''' (modern-day Foça in Turkey) was an ancient [[Ionia]]n [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] city on the western coast of [[Anatolia]]. It is perhaps best known for having founded, in [[600 BC]], the colony of Massalia (modern Marseille).<br />
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==Geography==<br />
Phocaea was the most northern of the Ionian cities. It was located near the mouth of the river [[Hermus]] (now Gediz), and situated on the coast of the peninsula separating the Gulf of [[Cyme]] to the north, named for the largest of the [[Aeolia]]n cities, and the Gulf of [[Smyrna]] (Turkish - Izmir) to the south. It had two good harbors.<br />
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==History==<br />
The ancient Greek geographer [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], says that Phocaea was founded by [[Phocis prefecture|Phocians]] under [[Athens|Athenian]] leadership, on land given to them by the Aeolian Cymaeans, and that they were admitted into the [[Ionian League]], after accepting as kings the line of [[Codrus]]. Pottery remains indicate Aeolian presence as late as the [[9th century BC]], and Ionian presence as early as the end of the 9th century BC. From this an approximate date of settlement for Phocaea can be inferred<br />
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According to [[Herodotus]] the Phocaeans were the first Greeks to make long sea-voyages, having discovered the coasts of the Adriatic, [[Tyrrhenia]] and Spain. Herodotus relates that they so impressed, [[Arganthonius]], king of [[Tartessus]] in Spain, that he invited them to settle there, and, when they declined, gave them a great sum of money to build a wall around their city.<br />
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Their sea travel was extensive. To the south they probably conducted trade with the Greek colony of [[Naucratis]] in Egypt, which was the colony of their fellow Ionian city [[Miletus]]. To the north, they probably helped settle [[Amisos]] on the [[Black Sea]], and [[Lampsacus]] at the north end of the [[Hellespont]] (now [[Dardanelles]]). However Phocaea's major colonies were to the west. These included [[Alalia]] in Corsica, Massalia (Marseille) in France, and Emporion (Ampurias) in Spain.<br />
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Phocaea remained independent until the reign of the Lydian king [[Croesus]] (circa 560 - 545 BC), when they, along with the rest of mainland Ionia, first, fell under Lydian control and then, along with Lydia (who had allied itself with [[Sparta]]) were conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia in [[546 BC]], in one of the opening skirmishes of the great [[Greco-Persian Wars|Greco-Persian conflict]].<br />
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Rather than submit to Persian rule, the Phocaeans abandoned their city. Some may have fled to [[Chios]], others to their colonies on Corsica and elsewhere in the [[Mediterranean]], with some eventually returning to Phocaea. Many however became the founders of [[Elea]], around [[540 BC]].<br />
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In [[500 BC]], Phocaea joined the [[Ionian Revolt]] against Persia. Indicative of its naval prowess, [[Dionysis]], a Phocaean was chosen to command the Ionian fleet at the decisive [[Battle of Lade]], in [[494 BC]]. However, indicative of its declining fortunes, Phocaea was only able to contribute three ships (out of a total of "three hundred and fifty three". The Ionian fleet was defeated and the revolt ended shortly thereafter.<br />
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After the defeat of [[Xerxes I]] by the Greeks in [[480 BC]] and the subsequent rise of Athenian power, Phocaea joined the [[Delian League]], paying tribute to Athens of two talents. In [[412 BC]], during the [[Peloponnesian War]], with the help of [[Sparta]], Phocaea rebelled along with the rest of Ionia.<br />
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During the [[Hellenistic period]] it fell under [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]], then [[Attalid dynasty|Attalid]] rule.<br />
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== Coinage ==<br />
Following the Lydians, the Phocaeans were among the first in the world to make and use coins as money. Its coins were made of electrum an alloy of silver and gold. The British Museum has a Phocaean coin containing the image of a seal ("phoca" means "seal" in Greek) dating from [[600 BC|600]]&ndash;[[550 BC]].<br />
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==References==<br />
*Herodotus, ''The Persian Wars'', Translated by A. D. Godley, (Loeb Classical Library, Nos. 117-120), Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press (1920) ISBN 0674991303 ISBN 0674991311 ISBN 0674991338 ISBN 0674991346[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+toc &nbsp;]<br />
*[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', Books I-II, translated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918) ISBN 0674991044.[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Paus.+1.1.1 &nbsp;]<br />
*Pliny the Elder, ''The Natural History'' (Eds. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A.) London. Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. (1855) [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+toc &nbsp;]<br />
*Stillwell, Richard, ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'', (Editors: Richard Stillwell, William L. MacDonald and Marian Holland McAllister) (1976) ISBN 0691035423 [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006;layout=;query=toc &nbsp;]<br />
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==Notes==<br />
* Pliny [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+3.5 3.5]<br />
* Pausanias [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Paus.+7.3.1 7.3.10]<br />
* Stilwell [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006%3Aid%3Dphokaia "Phokaia"]<br />
* [[Herodotus]] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+1.163.1 1.163]<br />
* Stilwell [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006%3Aid%3Dphokaia "Phokaia"]<br />
* Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+1.6.1 1.6]<br />
* For Herodotus' account of the flight of the Phocaeans, see: [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+1.164.1 1.164&ndash;168]<br />
* Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+6.11.1 6.11-12]<br />
* Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+6.8.1 6.8]<br />
* [http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/worldofmoney/world_wom.html The British Museum]<br />
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<div>'''Philadelphia''' (Greek Φιλαδέλφεια, Turkish ''Alasehir'') was established in [[Asia Minor]], [[189 BC]] by King [[Eumenes II]] of [[Pergamos]] ([[197 BC|197]]-[[160 BC]]). [[Eumenes II]] named the city for the love of his brother, who would be his successor, [[Attalus II]] ([[159 BC|159]]-[[138 BC]]), whose loyalty earned him the nickname, "Philadelphos", literally meaning "one who loves his brother". The city is perhaps best-known as the site of one of the [[seven churches of Asia]] in the Book of Revelation. The city lies in an earthquake-prone area.<br />
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Alasehir is located approximately 100 miles east of [[Smyrna]] and 26 miles southwest of Sardis on the Cogamis River, a tributary of the Hermus river. Lacking an heir, [[Attalus III|Attalus III Philometer]], the last of the [[Attalid dynasty|Attalid kings of Pergamum]], bequeathed his kingdom, including Philadelphia, to his Roman allies when he died in [[133 BC]]. Rome set up the province of Asia in [[129 BC]] by combining [[Ionia]] and the former Kingdom of [[Pergamos]]. <br />
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==Book of Revelation==<br />
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It is this ancient Philadelphia site that is commonly surmised to have been the headquarters of one of the seven churches referred by John the Revelator in Revelation 1:11. Philadelphia is the sixth church mentioned.<br />
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==References==<br />
*The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia And their place in the plan of the Apocalypse, W. M. Ramsay, D.C.L, Litt.D., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University of Aberdeen, 1904 <br />
*http://www.ephesusguide.com/seven_churches_philadelphia.php<br />
*http://www.enjoyturkey.com/Tours/Interest/Biblicals/philadelphia.htm<br />
*http://www.toursforchurches.co.uk/turkey-churches.htm<br />
*http://www.luthersem.edu/ckoester/Revelation/Philadelphia/main.htm<br />
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<div>'''Pergamos''' or '''Pergamum''' (Turkish '''Bergama''') was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] city, in northwestern [[Anatolia]], 16 miles from the [[Aegean Sea]], located on a promontory on the north side of the river [[Caicus River|Caicus]] (modern day Bakir), that became an important kingdom during the [[Hellenic civilization|Hellenistic period]], under the [[Attalid dynasty]], [[282 BC|282]]&ndash;[[129 BC]].<br />
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The Attalids, the descendants of [[Attalus]], the father of [[Philetaerus]] who came to power in [[282 BC]], were among the most loyal supporters of Rome among the Hellenistic successor states. Under [[Attalus I]], they allied with Rome against [[Philip V of Macedon]], during the [[First Macedonian War|first]] and [[Second Macedonian War|second]] [[Macedonian Wars]], and again under [[Eumenes II]], against [[Perseus of Macedon]], during the [[Third Macedonian War]]. For support against the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucids]], the Attalids were rewarded with all the former Seleucid domains in [[Asia Minor]].<br />
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The Attalids ruled with intelligence and generosity. Many documents survive showing how the Attalids would support the growth of towns through sending in skilled artisans and by remitting taxes. They allowed the Greek cities in their domains to maintain nominal independence. They sent gifts to Greek cultural sites like [[Delphi]], [[Delos]], and [[Athens]]. They defeated the invading Celts. They remodeled the acropolis of Pergamum after the [[Acropolis]] in Athens. The Great Altar of Pergamon is in the Pergamon Museum of Berlin.<br />
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Pergamos had the second best library in the ancient world, after [[Alexandria]]. When the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] stopped exporting [[papyrus]], partly because of competitors and partly because of shortages, the Pergamenes invented a new substance to use in codices, called ''pergamum'' or parchment after the city. This was made of fine calf skin, a predecessor of vellum and paper.<br />
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When [[Attalus III of Pergamum|Attalus III]] died without an heir in [[133 BC]] he bequeathed Pergamum to Rome, in order to prevent a civil war. <br />
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In the [[1st century|first century AD]], the Christian Church at Pergamos was one of the Seven Churches to which the Book of Revelation was addressed.<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://ozhanozturk.com/content/view/388/1/ Encyclopaedia of Turkey: Ancient Pergamum]<br />
*[http://www.usd.edu/~clehmann/pir/asiamysi.htm Rosa Valderrama, "Pergamum"]: brief history<br />
*[http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Arts/Pergamon.htm Pergamon art]<br />
*[http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/bergama_turkey Photographic tour of old and new Pergammon, including the museum]<br />
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<div>'''Chalcedon''' ( Greek Χαλκηδών, sometimes transliterated by purists as ''Chalkedon'') was an ancient maritime town of [[Bithynia]], in [[Asia Minor]], almost directly opposite [[Byzantium]], south of [[Scutari]] (modern Üsküdar). <br />
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It was a [[Megara|Megarian]] colony founded on a site so obviously inferior to that which was within view on the opposite shore, that it received from the oracle the name of "the City of the Blind." <br />
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In its early history it shared the fortunes of Byzantium, was taken by the satrap Otanes, vacillated long between the [[Sparta|Lacedaemonian]] and the [[Athens|Athenian]] interests, and was at last bequeathed to the Roman Republic by [[Attalus III]] of [[Pergamos]] ([[133 BC|133 b.c.]]). <br />
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It was partly destroyed by Mithradates, but recovered during the Empire, and in [[451]] CE was the location of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. <br />
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It fell under the repeated attacks of the barbarian hordes who crossed over after having ravaged Byzantium, and furnished an encampment to the Persians under [[Khosrau I of Persia|Chosroes]], c. [[616]]-[[626]]. The Turks used it as a quarry for building materials for [[Constantinople]]. <br />
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To the south are the ruins of [[Panteichion]] (mod. Pendik), where [[Belisarius]] is said to have lived in retirement.<br />
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The name of the mineral chalcedony is derived from that of this town.<br />
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It now called Kadikoy.<br />
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<div>[[Nicomedes I of Bithynia]] founded the city of '''Nicomedia''' (Turkish - &#x0130;zmit), at the head of the [[Gulf of Astacus]] (which opens on the [[Propontis]]), in [[264 BC]] The city has ever since been one of the chief towns in this part of [[Asia Minor]]. It was the metropolis of [[Bithynia]] under the Roman empire (see [[Nicaea]]), and Diocletian made it the chief city of the Eastern Roman empire. Owing to its position at the convergence of the Asiatic roads to the new capital, Nicomedia retained its importance even after the foundation of [[Constantinople]] and its own capture by the Turks ([[1338]]).<br />
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The city had a sizable Greek population until the [[Asia Minor Disaster]] in [[1922]] and the exchange of populations. Refugees from Nicomedia founded [[Nea Nikomedia]] in the [[Imathia prefecture]] of Greece.<br />
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See C. Texier, ''Asie mineure'' (Paris, 1839); V. Cuenet, ''Turquie d'Asie'' (Paris, 1894).<br />
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[[Category:Asia Minor]]<br />
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<div>'''Bithynia''' was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of [[Asia Minor]], adjoining the [[Propontis]], the [[Thrace|Thracian]] [[Bosporus]] and the Euxine (today [[Black Sea]]).<br />
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==Description==<br />
Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as [[Sea of Marmara]]): [[Nicomedia]], [[Chalcedon]], [[Kios]] and [[Apamea]]. Bithynia also contained [[Nicaea]], most famous for being the birthplace of the [[Nicene Creed]].<br />
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According to [[Strabo]] Bithynia was bounded on the east by the river Sangarius (Sakarya) river, but the more commonly received division extended it to the Parthenius, which separated it from [[Paphlagonia]], thus comprising the district inhabited by the [[Mariandyni]]. On the west and southwest it was separated from [[Mysia]] by the river Rhyndacus; and on the south it adjoined [[Phrygia]], [[Epictetus]] and [[Galatia]].<br />
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It is occupied by mountains and forests, but has valleys and coastal districts of great fertility. The most important mountain range is the (so-called) "Mysian" Olympus (7600 ft., 2300 m), which towers above Bursa and is clearly visible as far away as Istanbul (70 miles, 113 km). Its summits are covered with snow for a great part of the year.<br />
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East of this the range now called Ala-Dagh extends for more than 100 miles (160 km), from the Sangarius to Paphlagonia. Both of these ranges are part of the border of mountains which bounds the great tableland of [[Asia Minor]]. The broad tract which projects towards the west as far as the shores of the Bosporus, though hilly and covered with forests - the Turkish ''Ağaç Denizi'', or "The Ocean of Trees" - is not traversed by any mountain chain. The west coast is indented by two deep inlets, the northernmost, the Gulf of İzmit (ancient Gulf of Astacus), penetrating between 40 and 50 miles (65-80 km) into the interior as far as İzmit (ancient [[Nicomedia]]), separated by an isthmus of only about 25 miles (40 km) from the [[Black Sea]]; and the Gulf of Mudanya or Gemlik (Gulf of Cius), about 25 miles (40 km) long. At its extremity is situated the small town of Gemlik (ancient [[Kios|Cius]]) at the mouth of a valley, communicating with the lake of Iznik, on which was situated [[Nicaea]].<br />
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The principal rivers are the Sangarius, which traverses the province from south to north; the Rhyndacus, which separated it from Mysia; and the Billaeus (Filiyas), which rises in the Aladağ, about 50 miles (80 km) from the sea, and after flowing by modern Bolu (ancient Bithynion-[[Claudiopolis]]) falls into the Euxine, close to the ruins of the ancient Tium, about 40 miles (64 km) northeast of [[Heraclea Pontica]] (the modern Karadeniz Ereğli), having a course of more than 100 miles (160 km). The Parthenius (modern Bartın), the eastern boundary of the province, is a much less considerable stream.<br />
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The valleys towards the Black Sea abound in fruit trees of all kinds, such as oranges, while the valley of the Sangarius and the plains near Bursa and Iznik (Nicaea) are fertile and well cultivated. Extensive plantations of mulberry trees supply the silk for which Bursa has long been celebrated, and which is manufactured there on a large scale.<br />
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==History==<br />
According to ancient authors ([[Herodotus]], [[Xenophon]], Strabo, etc.), the Bithynians were an immigrant [[Thracian]] tribe. The existence of a tribe called Thyni in Thrace is well attested, and the two cognate tribes of the Thyni and Bithyni appear to have settled simultaneously in the adjoining parts of Asia, where they expelled or subdued the Mysians, [[Caucones]] and other minor tribes, the Mariandyni alone maintaining themselves in the northeast. Herodotus mentions the Thyni and [[Bithyni]] as existing side by side; but ultimately the latter must have become the more important, as they gave their name to the country. They were incorporated by king [[Croesus]] within the Lydian monarchy, with which they fell under the dominion of Persia ([[546 BC]]), and were included in the satrapy of [[Phrygia]], which comprised all the countries up to the Hellespont and Bosporus.<br />
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But even before the conquest by [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] the Bithynians appear to have asserted their independence, and successfully maintained it under two native princes, Bas and Zipoites, the latter of whom assumed the title of king (''basileus'') in [[297 BC]]. His son and succeeder, [[Nicomedes I of Bithynia|Nicomedes I]], founded [[Nicomedia]], which soon rose to great prosperity, and during his long reign (c.[[278 BC|278]] - c.[[255 BC]]), as well as those of his successors, Prusias I, Prusias II and Nicomedes II ([[149 BC|149]] - [[91 BC]]), the kingdom of Bithynia held a considerable place among the minor monarchies of [[Anatolia]]. But the last king, [[Nicomedes IV of Bithynia|Nicomedes IV]], was unable to maintain himself against Mithradates VI of Pontus, and, after being restored to his throne by the Roman Senate, he bequeathed his kingdom by will to the Roman republic ([[74 BC]]).<br />
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As a Roman province, the boundaries of Bithynia frequently varied, and it was commonly united for administrative purposes with the province of [[Pontus]]. This was the state of things in the time of Trajan, when Pliny the Younger was appointed governor of the combined provinces ([[103]]-[[105]]), a circumstance to which we are indebted for valuable information concerning the Roman provincial administration.<br />
Under the [[Byzantine Empire]] Bithynia was again divided into two provinces, separated by the Sangarius, to the west of which the name of Bithynia was restricted.<br />
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Bithynia appears to have attracted so much attention because of its roads and its strategic position between the frontiers of the Danube in the north and the Euphrates in the southeast. Troops frequently wintered at Nikomedia.<br />
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The most important cities were [[Nicomedia]] and [[Nicea]], which disputed with one another the rank of capital. Both of these were founded after Alexander the Great; but at a much earlier period the [[Greeks]] had established on the coast the colonies of Cius (afterwards Prusias, modern Gemlik); [[Chalcedon]] (modern Kadıköy), at the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite Constantinople; and [[Heraclea Pontica]] (modern Karadeniz Ereğli), on the Euxine, about 120 miles (190 km) east of the Bosporus. All these rose to be flourishing places of trade, as did Prousa. Other places of importance at the present day are İzmit and [[Scutari]] (modern Üsküdar).<br />
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