Byzantine Empire - Revision history

Irlandos: /* Origin */

2009-05-29T12:23:23Z

Origin

Irlandos: /* Early history */

2008-03-14T08:33:12Z

Early history

Irlandos at 09:07, October 2, 2007

2007-10-02T09:07:54Z

Irlandos at 15:37, September 13, 2007

2007-09-13T15:37:37Z

Irlandos: /* End of empire */

2006-06-15T10:05:59Z

End of empire

Irlandos at 19:30, June 2, 2006

2006-06-02T19:30:01Z

Irlandos at 23:16, March 10, 2006

2006-03-10T23:16:14Z

Show changes

Irlandos: /* See also */

2006-01-23T12:10:54Z

Irlandos: /* Golden era */

2006-01-23T12:09:36Z

Golden era

Irlandos: /* References */

2006-01-21T21:15:18Z

References

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 The division of the Empire began with the [[Tetrarchy]] (quadrumvirate) in the late [[3rd century]] with Emperor Diocletian, as an institution intended to more efficiently control the vast Roman Empire. He split the Empire in half, with two emperors ruling from Italy and Greece, each having a co-emperor of their own. This division continued into the [[4th century]] until [[324]] when [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine the Great]] managed to become the sole Emperor of the Empire. Constantine decided to found a new capital for himself and chose Byzantium for that purpose. The rebuilding process was completed in [[330]].
-Constantine renamed the city New Rome but in popular use it was called [[Constantinople]] (in Greek, &#922;&#969;&#957;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#973;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#962;, ''Constantinoúpolis'', meaning Constantine's City). This new capital became the centre of his administration. Constantine was also the first Christian emperor. Although the empire was not yet "Byzantine" under Constantine, Christianity would become one of the defining characteristics of the Byzantine Empire, as opposed to the [[Paganism|pagan]] Roman Empire.
+Constantine renamed the city New Rome but in popular use it was called [[Constantinople]] (in Greek, &#922;&#969;&#957;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#973;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#962;, ''Constantinoúpolis'', meaning Constantine's City). This new capital became the centre of his administration. Constantine was also the first Christian emperor. Although the empire was not yet "Byzantine" under Constantine, Christianity would become one of the defining characteristics of the Byzantine Empire, as opposed to the pagan Roman Empire.
 Another defining moment in the history of the Roman/Byzantine Empire was the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]] in [[378]]. This defeat, along with the death of Emperor [[Valens]], is one possible date for dividing the ancient and medieval worlds. The Roman empire was divided further by Valens' successor [[Theodosius I]] (also called "the great"), who had ruled both beginning in [[392]]. In [[395]] he gave the two halves to his two sons [[Arcadius]] and Honorius; Arcadius became ruler in the East, with his capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler in the west, with his capital in [[Ravenna]]. At this point it is common to refer to the empire as "Eastern Roman" rather than "Byzantine."

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 ==Early history==
-The Eastern Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the [[3rd century|3rd]] and [[4th century|4th centuries]], in part because urban culture was better established there and the initial invasions were attracted to the wealth of Rome. Throughout the [[5th century]] various invasions conquered the western half of the empire, but at best could only demand tribute from the eastern half. [[Theodosius II]] expanded the walls of [[Constantinople]], leaving the city impenetrable to attacks. [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Zeno I]] ruled the east as the empire in the west finally collapsed in [[476]]. Zeno negotiated with the Goths, ending their threats to the east but leaving them in control of the west.
+The Eastern Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the [[3rd century|3rd]] and [[4th century|4th centuries]], in part because urban culture was better established there and the initial invasions were attracted to the wealth of Rome. Throughout the [[5th century]] various invasions conquered the western half of the empire, but at best could only demand tribute from the eastern half. [[Theodosius II]] expanded the walls of [[Constantinople]], leaving the city impenetrable to attacks. [[Zeno I]] ruled the east as the empire in the west finally collapsed in [[476]]. Zeno negotiated with the Goths, ending their threats to the east but leaving them in control of the west.
 The [[6th century]] saw the beginning of the conflicts with the Byzantine Empire's traditional early enemies, the Persians, Slavs and Bulgars. Theological crises, such as the question of [[Monophysitism]], also dominated the empire. However, the Eastern Empire had not forgotten its western roots. Under [[Justinian I]], and the brilliant general [[Belisarius]], the empire temporarily regained some of the lost Roman provinces in the west, conquering much of Italy, north Africa, and Spain.

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 |-
 | [[1054]]
-| [[Schism]]. Church in Rome breaks with the Church in Constantinople.
+| [[Great Schism|Schism]]. Church in Rome breaks with the Church in Constantinople.
 |-
 | [[1071]]

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:37, September 13, 2007
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	# Steven Runciman, ''The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign'', p.9. University Press (Cambridge), 1990.		# Steven Runciman, ''The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign'', p.9. University Press (Cambridge), 1990.
	# Edward Gibbon, ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', chapter 53.		# Edward Gibbon, ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', chapter 53.
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		+	[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]

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 The Byzantine Empire was arguably the only stable state in Europe during the Middle Ages. In fact, the Middle Ages are often traditionally defined by the same years as the Byzantine Empire is: 395-1453. Byzantium's expert military and diplomatic power ensured inadvertently that Western Europe remained safe from many of the more devastating invasions from eastern peoples, such as Turks and Arabs. This ensured that Europe was eventually able to recover from the so-called Dark Ages revitalized and powerful, eventually destroying their Byzantine protectors in the form of the fourth crusade.
-Byzantium's influence on Western art and architecture is so well-known as to scarcely need mentioning. Its most lasting effect, though, lies in its spreading of Orthodoxy to surrounding peoples (the so-called "Byzantine commonwealth," a term coined by 20th century historians). Early Byzantine missionary work spread [[Orthodox Christianity]] to various [[Slavic peoples]], and it is still predominant among the Russians and many other Slavic peoples as well as among the Greeks. Less well known is the influence of the Byzantine style of religion on the millions of Christians in Ethiopia, the Egyptian Coptic Christians, and the Christians of Georgia and Armenia.
+Byzantium's influence on Western art and architecture is so well-known as to scarcely need mentioning. Its most lasting effect, though, lies in its spreading of Orthodoxy to surrounding peoples (the so-called "Byzantine commonwealth," a term coined by 20th century historians). Early Byzantine missionary work spread [[Orthodox Christianity]] to various Slavic peoples and it is still predominant among the Russians and many other Slavic peoples as well as among the Greeks. Less well known is the influence of the Byzantine style of religion on the millions of Christians in Ethiopia, the Egyptian Coptic Christians, and the Christians of Georgia and Armenia.
 Robert Byron, one of the first great 20th century Philhellenes, maintained that the greatness of Byzantium lay in what he described as "the Triple Fusion": that of a Roman body, a Greek mind and an oriental, mystical soul. The Roman Empire of the East was founded on Monday, [[May 11]], 330; it came to an end on Tuesday, [[May 29]], [[1453]] - although it had already come into being when Diocletian split the Roman Empire in 286, and it was still alive when [[Trebizond]] finally fell in 1461. It was an empire that dominated the world in all spheres of life, for most of its 1,123 years and 18 days. Yet although it has been shunned and almost forgotten in the history of the world up until now, the spirit of Byzantium still resonates in the world. By preserving the ancient world, and forging the medieval, it is the Byzantine Empire that lies as the foundation of Western civilisation as we know it, for better or for worse.

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 |-
 | [[568]]
-| The [[Lombards|Lombard]] invasion results in the loss of most of Italy.
+| The Lombard invasion results in the loss of most of Italy.
 |-
 | [[634]]-[[641]]
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 |}
-The '''Byzantine Empire''' is the term conventionally used to describe the [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centred at its capital in [[Constantinople]]. In certain specific contexts, usually referring to the time before the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it is also often referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. There is no consensus on the starting date of the Byzantine period. Some place it during the reign of Diocletian ([[284]]-[[305]]) due to the administrative reforms he introduced, dividing the empire into a ''pars Orientis'' and a ''pars Occidentis''. Others place it at [[330]] when [[Constantinople]] - formerly [[Byzantium]] - became the capital of the East. Others place it during the reign of [[Theodosius I]] ([[379]]-[[395]]) and Christendom's victory over paganism, or, following his death in 395, with the division of the empire into Western and Eastern halves. Others place it yet further in [[476]], when the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was forced to abdicate, thus leaving to the emperor in the Greek East sole imperial authority. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] inaugurated his new capital, the process of [[Hellenization]] and [[Christianization]] was well underway.
+The '''Byzantine Empire''' is the term conventionally used to describe the [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centred at its capital in [[Constantinople]]. In certain specific contexts, usually referring to the time before the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it is also often referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. There is no consensus on the starting date of the Byzantine period. Some place it during the reign of Diocletian ([[284]]-[[305]]) due to the administrative reforms he introduced, dividing the empire into a ''pars Orientis'' and a ''pars Occidentis''. Others place it at [[330]] when [[Constantinople]] - formerly [[Byzantium]] - became the capital of the East. Others place it during the reign of [[Theodosius I]] ([[379]]-[[395]]) and Christendom's victory over paganism, or, following his death in 395, with the division of the empire into Western and Eastern halves. Others place it yet further in [[476]], when the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was forced to abdicate, thus leaving to the emperor in the Greek East sole imperial authority. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] inaugurated his new capital, the process of [[Hellenization]] and Christianization was well underway.
 ==The term "Byzantine Empire"==
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 Justinian updated the ancient Roman legal code in the new [[Corpus Juris Civilis]], although it is notable that these laws were still written in Latin, a language which was becoming archaic and poorly understood even by those who wrote the new code. Under Justinian's reign, the Church of [[Hagia Sophia|Hagia Sofia]] (Holy Wisdom) was constructed in the [[530s]]. This church would become the centre of Byzantine religious life and the centre of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] form of Christianity. The sixth century was also a time of flourishing culture (although Justinian closed the university at [[Athens]]), producing the epic poet [[Nonnus]], the lyric poet [[Paul the Silentiary]], the historian [[Procopius]] and the natural philosopher [[John Philoponos]], among other notable talents.
-Justinian left his successors a severely depleted treasury, however, and they were largely unable to deal with the sudden appearance of new invaders on all fronts. The Lombards invaded and conquered much of Italy, the Avars and later the Bulgars overwhelmed much of the [[Balkans]], and in the early 7th century the [[Persians]] invaded and conquered Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Armenia. The Persians were defeated and the territories were recovered by the emperor [[Heraclius]] in [[627]], but the unexpected appearance of the newly converted and united Muslim Arabs took by surprise an empire exhausted by the titanic effort against Persia, and the southern provinces were all overrun. The Empire's most catastrophic defeat was the [[Battle of Yarmuk]], fought in Syria. Heraclius and the military governors of Syria were slow to respond to the new threat, and Byzantine Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and the [[Exarchate of Africa]] were permanently incorporated into the Muslim Empire in the [[7th century]], a process which was completed with the fall of Carthage to the Caliphate in [[698]]. The Lombards continued to expand in northern Italy, taking Liguria in 640 and conquering most of the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]] in [[751]], leaving the Byzantines with control only of small areas around the toe and heel of Italy.
+Justinian left his successors a severely depleted treasury, however, and they were largely unable to deal with the sudden appearance of new invaders on all fronts. The Lombards invaded and conquered much of Italy, the Avars and later the Bulgars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, and in the early 7th century the [[Persians]] invaded and conquered Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Armenia. The Persians were defeated and the territories were recovered by the emperor [[Heraclius]] in [[627]], but the unexpected appearance of the newly converted and united Muslim Arabs took by surprise an empire exhausted by the titanic effort against Persia, and the southern provinces were all overrun. The Empire's most catastrophic defeat was the [[Battle of Yarmuk]], fought in Syria. Heraclius and the military governors of Syria were slow to respond to the new threat, and Byzantine Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and the [[Exarchate of Africa]] were permanently incorporated into the Muslim Empire in the [[7th century]], a process which was completed with the fall of Carthage to the Caliphate in [[698]]. The Lombards continued to expand in northern Italy, taking Liguria in 640 and conquering most of the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]] in [[751]], leaving the Byzantines with control only of small areas around the toe and heel of Italy.
 ==Hellenizing era==
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 [[Constans II]] (reigned [[641]] - [[668]]) divided the empire into a system of military provinces called ''[[thema|thémata]]'' (themes) to face permanent assault, with urban life declining outside the capital while Constantinople grew to become the largest city in the Christian world. Attempts by the Arabs to conquer Constantinople failed in the face of the [[Byzantine navy|Byzantines' superior navy]], their monopoly of the still mysterious incendiary weapon [[Greek fire]], the city's strong walls, and the skill of warrior emperors such as [[Leo III]] the [[Isauria]]n (reign [[717]] - [[741]]). After repelling the Arab assaults, the empire began to recover.
-Although falsely depicted as effete by the historian Edward Gibbon in the [[18th century]], the Byzantine Empire was the closest thing to a military [[superpower]] in the early Middle Ages, thanks to its [[heavy cavalry]] (the [[cataphract]]s), its subsidization (albeit inconsistently) of a well-to-do free peasant class as the basis for cavalry recruitment, its extraordinary defense in depth (the thematic system), its use of subsidies to play its enemies against one another, its intelligence gathering prowess, its development of a system of logistics based on mule trains, its navy (often tragically underfunded), and its rational military doctrines (not dissimilar to those of Sun Tzu) that emphasized stealth, surprise, swift maneuver and the marshalling of overwhelming force at the time and place of the Byzantine commander's choosing.
+Although falsely depicted as effete by the historian Edward Gibbon in the [[18th century]], the Byzantine Empire was the closest thing to a military superpower in the early Middle Ages, thanks to its [[heavy cavalry]] (the [[cataphract]]s), its subsidization (albeit inconsistently) of a well-to-do free peasant class as the basis for cavalry recruitment, its extraordinary defense in depth (the thematic system), its use of subsidies to play its enemies against one another, its intelligence gathering prowess, its development of a system of logistics based on mule trains, its navy (often tragically underfunded), and its rational military doctrines (not dissimilar to those of Sun Tzu) that emphasized stealth, surprise, swift maneuver and the marshalling of overwhelming force at the time and place of the Byzantine commander's choosing.
 After the siege of 717 in which the Arabs suffered horrific casualties, the Caliphate was never a serious threat to the Byzantine heartland. It would take a different civilization, that of the Seljuk Turks, to finally drive the imperial forces out of eastern and central [[Anatolia]].
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 Constantinople was initially not considered worth the effort of conquest, but with the advent of cannons, the walls, which had been impenetrable except by the Crusaders for over 1000 years, no longer offered adequate protection from the Ottomans. The [[Fall of Constantinople]] finally came after a two-month siege by [[Mehmed II]] on [[May 29]], [[1453]]. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Paleologus died fighting the Turks on the ramparts of Constantinople. Mehmed II also conquered [[Mystras]] in [[1460]] and [[Trebizond]] in [[1461]]. Mehmed styled himself the proper successor to the Eastern Roman Emperors and by the end of the century the Ottoman Empire had established its firm rule over [[Asia Minor]] and most of the Balkan peninsula.
-Meanwhile, the role of the Emperor as patron of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] had started being claimed by the [[Grand Duke]]s of Muscovy starting with Ivan III. His grandson Ivan IV would become the first Tsar of Russia (tsar being derived from the Latin caesar) . Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and [[Constantinople]], a Third Rome. Both the Ottoman and the Russian Empires would continue to consider themselves proper heirs to the Byzantines until their own demises early in the [[20th century]].
+Meanwhile, the role of the Emperor as patron of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] had started being claimed by the Grand Dukes of Muscovy starting with Ivan III. His grandson Ivan IV would become the first Tsar of Russia (tsar being derived from the Latin caesar) . Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and [[Constantinople]], a Third Rome. Both the Ottoman and the Russian Empires would continue to consider themselves proper heirs to the Byzantines until their own demises early in the [[20th century]].
 In addition Byzantium played an important role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world and to Renaissance Italy. The influence of its theologians on medieval Western thought (and especially on Thomas Aquinas) was profound, and their removal from the "canon" of Western thought in subsequent centuries has, in the minds of many, only served to impoverish the canon.
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 The Byzantine Empire was arguably the only stable state in Europe during the Middle Ages. In fact, the Middle Ages are often traditionally defined by the same years as the Byzantine Empire is: 395-1453. Byzantium's expert military and diplomatic power ensured inadvertently that Western Europe remained safe from many of the more devastating invasions from eastern peoples, such as Turks and Arabs. This ensured that Europe was eventually able to recover from the so-called Dark Ages revitalized and powerful, eventually destroying their Byzantine protectors in the form of the fourth crusade.
-Byzantium's influence on Western art and architecture is so well-known as to scarcely need mentioning. Its most lasting effect, though, lies in its spreading of Orthodoxy to surrounding peoples (the so-called "Byzantine commonwealth," a term coined by 20th century historians). Early Byzantine missionary work spread [[Orthodox Christianity]] to various [[Slavic peoples]], and it is still predominant among the Russians and many other Slavic peoples as well as among the Greeks. Less well known is the influence of the Byzantine style of religion on the millions of Christians in Ethiopia, the [[Coptic Christianity|Egyptian Coptic]] Christians, and the Christians of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and Armenia.
+Byzantium's influence on Western art and architecture is so well-known as to scarcely need mentioning. Its most lasting effect, though, lies in its spreading of Orthodoxy to surrounding peoples (the so-called "Byzantine commonwealth," a term coined by 20th century historians). Early Byzantine missionary work spread [[Orthodox Christianity]] to various [[Slavic peoples]], and it is still predominant among the Russians and many other Slavic peoples as well as among the Greeks. Less well known is the influence of the Byzantine style of religion on the millions of Christians in Ethiopia, the Egyptian Coptic Christians, and the Christians of Georgia and Armenia.
 Robert Byron, one of the first great 20th century Philhellenes, maintained that the greatness of Byzantium lay in what he described as "the Triple Fusion": that of a Roman body, a Greek mind and an oriental, mystical soul. The Roman Empire of the East was founded on Monday, [[May 11]], 330; it came to an end on Tuesday, [[May 29]], [[1453]] - although it had already come into being when Diocletian split the Roman Empire in 286, and it was still alive when [[Trebizond]] finally fell in 1461. It was an empire that dominated the world in all spheres of life, for most of its 1,123 years and 18 days. Yet although it has been shunned and almost forgotten in the history of the world up until now, the spirit of Byzantium still resonates in the world. By preserving the ancient world, and forging the medieval, it is the Byzantine Empire that lies as the foundation of Western civilisation as we know it, for better or for worse.

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 *[[Byzantine Emperors]]
 *[[History of Greece]]
 *[[Latin Empire]]
 *[[Empire of Nicaea]]

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 ==Golden era==
-The empire reached its height under the [[Macedonia]]n emperors of the late [[9th century|9th]], [[10th century|10th]] and early [[11th century|11th centuries]]. During these years the Empire held out against pressure from the Roman church to remove Patriarch [[Photius I of Constantinople|Photios]], and gained control over the [[Adriatic Sea]], parts of Italy, and much of the land held by the Bulgarians. The Bulgarians were completely defeated by [[Basil II]] in [[1014]]. The Empire also gained a new ally (yet sometimes also an enemy) in the new [[Varangian]] state in Kiev, from which the empire received an important mercenary force, the [[Varangian|Varangian Guard]].
+The empire reached its height under the [[Macedonia]]n emperors of the late [[9th century|9th]], [[10th century|10th]] and early [[11th century|11th centuries]]. During these years the Empire held out against pressure from the Roman church to remove Patriarch [[Photius I of Constantinople|Photios]], and gained control over the Adriatic Sea, parts of Italy, and much of the land held by the Bulgarians. The Bulgarians were completely defeated by [[Basil II]] in [[1014]]. The Empire also gained a new ally (yet sometimes also an enemy) in the new Varangian state in Kiev, from which the empire received an important mercenary force, the Varangian Guard.
-In [[1054]] relations between Greek-speaking Eastern and Latin-speaking Western traditions within the Christian Church reached a terminal crisis. There was never a formal declaration of institutional separation, and the so-called [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] actually was the culmination of centuries of gradual separation. From this split, the modern (Roman) Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches arose.
+In [[1054]] relations between Greek-speaking Eastern and Latin-speaking Western traditions within the Christian Church reached a terminal crisis. There was never a formal declaration of institutional separation, and the so-called [[Great Schism]] actually was the culmination of centuries of gradual separation. From this split, the modern (Roman) Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches arose.
-Like Rome before it, though, Byzantium soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of the landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system. Facing its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and the [[Abbasid caliphate]], it might have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation. The Normans finally completed the Byzantine expulsion from Italy in [[1071]] due to an ostensible lack of Byzantine interest in sending any support to Italy, and the Seljuk Turks, who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt under the Fatimids, still made moves into [[Asia Minor]], the main recruiting ground for the Byzantine armies. With the surprise defeat at [[Manzikert]] of emperor [[Romanus IV]] in [[1071]] by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, most of that province was lost. The final split between the Roman and Orthodox churches occurred at this time as well, with their mutual excommunication in [[1054]].
+Like Rome before it, though, Byzantium soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of the landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system. Facing its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and the Abbasid caliphate, it might have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation. The Normans finally completed the Byzantine expulsion from Italy in [[1071]] due to an ostensible lack of Byzantine interest in sending any support to Italy, and the Seljuk Turks, who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt under the Fatimids, still made moves into [[Asia Minor]], the main recruiting ground for the Byzantine armies. With the surprise defeat at [[Battle of Manzikert|Manzikert]] of emperor [[Romanus IV]] in [[1071]] by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, most of that province was lost. The final split between the Roman and Orthodox churches occurred at this time as well, with their mutual excommunication in [[1054]].
 ==End of empire==

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 ==References==
 # Helene Ahrweiler, "Les Europeens", pp.150, Herman (Paris), 2000.
 # Steven Runciman, ''The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign'', p.9. University Press (Cambridge), 1990.
 # Edward Gibbon, ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', chapter 53.