Saint Paul - Revision history

Irlandos at 11:35, June 28, 2006

2006-06-28T11:35:02Z

Show changes

Irlandos: /* Alternative views */

2006-06-28T11:22:18Z

Alternative views

Irlandos: /* Legendary tradition */

2006-06-28T11:20:55Z

Legendary tradition

Irlandos: /* Writings */

2006-06-28T11:19:50Z

Writings

Irlandos: /* Social views */

2006-06-28T11:17:00Z

Social views

Irlandos: /* Theological teachings */

2006-06-28T11:11:31Z

Theological teachings

Irlandos: /* Paul's trip to Rome, imprisonment and death */

2006-06-28T10:45:59Z

Paul's trip to Rome, imprisonment and death

Irlandos: /* Arrest, Rome, and later life */

2006-06-28T10:43:30Z

Arrest, Rome, and later life

Irlandos: /* Arrest, Rome, and later life */

2006-06-28T10:43:15Z

Arrest, Rome, and later life

Irlandos: /* Founding of churches */

2006-06-28T10:42:43Z

Founding of churches

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:22, June 28, 2006
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	From the mid-[[2nd century]], orally transmitted legends that had grown up about the figure of Paul were embodied in written narratives, that applied contemporary literary conventions of realism and authenticity in order to give weight to this legendary oral core. Their tradition has been characterized (MacDonald 1983) as being in competition with the Pauline pastoral epistles. The pastoral epistles were accepted into the canon, as it developed in the [[3rd century]], while the legends continued their parallel, apocryphal career. The oral tradition was transmitted above all among women, MacDonald has asserted, and women appear more centrally in the legend than in the epistles, where they are relegated to the periphery.		From the mid-[[2nd century]], orally transmitted legends that had grown up about the figure of Paul were embodied in written narratives, that applied contemporary literary conventions of realism and authenticity in order to give weight to this legendary oral core. Their tradition has been characterized (MacDonald 1983) as being in competition with the Pauline pastoral epistles. The pastoral epistles were accepted into the canon, as it developed in the [[3rd century]], while the legends continued their parallel, apocryphal career. The oral tradition was transmitted above all among women, MacDonald has asserted, and women appear more centrally in the legend than in the epistles, where they are relegated to the periphery.

−	~~==Alternative views==~~
−	~~=== Christianity as mystery religion ===~~
−	In his books ''[[The Mythmaker]]'' and ''[[Paul and Hellenism]]'', [[Talmud]]ic scholar [[Hyam Maccoby]] proposed a theory that Paul was actually a [[Gentile]] raised in an environment influenced by the popular [[Hellenistic]] [[mystery religion]]s centered on dying and resurrected savior deities, and that he later converted to Judaism, hoping to become a [[Pharisee]] scholar (though Maccoby is predated in his thinking by S.G.F. Brandon in his ''The Trial of Jesus of Nazareth''). (There are no passages in the Talmud to validate this.) He found work in Jerusalem as a [[police]] officer of the [[Sadducee]] High Priest, who was a de facto Roman [[quisling]] in Jerusalem. Paul's work persecuting the enemies of the High Priest led to an internal conflict in his mind, which manifested itself while he was traveling to Damascus on a covert mission. Maccoby believes that Paul's revelation was thus actually a resolution of his divided self; Paul subsequently fused the mystery religions, Judaism and the [[Passion]] of Jesus into an entirely new belief, centered on the death of Jesus as a mystical atoning sacrifice. Maccoby considers Paul's claims to a Jewish background and Pharisaic education to be false, claiming that a number of passages in Paul's writings betray his ignorance of the [[Jewish Law]]. Maccoby also contends that Paul invented many of the key concepts of the Christian religion, and that the [[Gospels]] and other later Christian documents were written to reflect Paul's views rather than the authentic life and teaching of Jesus. Maccoby questions Paul's integrity as well:
−	~~<blockquote>~~
−	Scholars feel that, however objective their enquiry is supposed to be, they must always preserve an attitude of deep reverence towards Paul, and never say anything to suggest that he may have bent the truth at times, though the evidence is strong enough in various parts of his life-story that he was not above deception when he felt it warranted by circumstances. (Maccoby 1986)
−	~~</blockquote>~~
−	~~In this regard, 1 Corinthians 9:20–22:~~
−	~~<blockquote>~~
−	To the Jews I became as a Jew, in order to win Jews. To those under the law I became as one under the law (though I myself am not under the law) so that I might win those under the law. To those outside the law I became as one outside the law (though I am not free from God's law but am under Christ's law) so that I might win those outside the law. To the weak I became weak, so that I might win the weak. I have become all things to all people, that I might by all means save some." (NRSV)
−	~~</blockquote>~~
−	Some small modern religious groups share Maccoby's views on Paul's doctrines. They see Paul as an [[apostasy\|apostate]] from Judaism. While the teachings of Jesus may be the basis of Christian ethics, they view Paul's teachings as the true basis of modern Christian beliefs such as the atoning death of Jesus and the concept of original sin.

−	~~===Paul as a Gnostic===~~
−	There are theories according to which Paul was a Gnostic and his letters include Gnostic themes. He does write at one point of having known someone taken up into the "Third Heaven" (2 Cor 12:2). In this state he wrote he was not even sure whether he was in his body or not (12:3). There he wrote of having experienced things of which he could not speak (12:4). Orthodox Christianity in particular emphasizes the mystical dimensions of Paul's life and writings. (See also [[Gnosticism and the New Testament]].)
−
−	~~=== Paul as inclusivist ===~~
−	Another alternative view was first set forth by [[Rabbi]] [[Jacob Emden]] ([[1697]]–[[1776]]). His view, based on the [[Yeshu#The_medieval_Toledot_Yeshu_narratives\|medieval Toledot Yeshu narratives]], was that Saul of Tarsus was a devout and learned [[Pharisee]] who (turning away from his early [[Shammaite]] views) came to believe in salvation for the Gentiles and, under the guiding authority of the very learned and devout Simon Kepha (i.e., [[Saint Peter]]), set about refining a [[Noahide Laws\|Noahide]] religion for the Gentiles based around the [[Jesus]] movement. Paul believed the advantage of the Jews was their being entrusted with the [[oracle]]s of [[heaven]], and that the law was upon them. But he opposed the Jewish Christians who insisted (under some kind of Shammaite influence) that Gentiles were beyond salvation unless they became Jews. Paul insisted that they need only their purified faith and was firmly against [[proselytism\|proselytizing]]. He did, however, insist that any man born of a Jewish woman be circumcised (for example, Timothy, upon whom he himself carried out the ceremony) and live under the Law. In recent years perhaps the most exemplary developers of Emden's view are the [[Orthodox Judaism\|Orthodox]] Rabbi [[Harvey Falk]] and [[Pamela Eisenbaum]].<ref>Pamela Eisenbaum, "[http://www.crosscurrents.org/eisenbaum.htm Is Paul the Father of Misogyny and Antisemitism?]," ''Cross Currents'' 50, no. 4 (Winter 2000 – 2001).</ref> In this view, Paul is seen as a rabbi who understood the ruling that, although it would be forbidden to a Jew, ''[[shittuf]]'' (believing in the divine through the name of another) would be permissible for a Gentile despite the Noahide ban on [[idolatry]]. This is further backed up by Paul in his [[Epistle to the Romans\|first letter to the Romans]] when he compliments them on their religion. Again when he spoke to the Greeks about a divinity in their pantheon called "The [[Unknown God]]", it can be understood that he was trying to de-paganise their native religions for the sake of their own salvation.
−
−	~~=== New perspective on Paul ===~~
−	The "[[New Perspective on Paul]]" rose to prominence as a result of the work of [[E. P. Sanders]] in his [[1977]] book ''Paul and Palestinian Judaism'', in which he argued that the Judaism of Paul's day had been wrongly caricatured by Protestant theology. Traditionally, it had been assumed that 1st-century Judaism was a religion of "works" whereby Jews believed they had to earn their salvation by keeping the Law, and therefore when Paul spoke about "justification by faith" or the "justification of faith", he was referring to a new non-works-oriented way of salvation (being declared righteous by God) announced in Christ. Sanders reframed the context to make law-keeping and good works a sign of being in the [[Covenant]] (marking out the Jews as the people of God) rather than deeds performed in order to accomplish salvation. If Sanders' perspective were true, the traditional Protestant understanding of the doctrine of justification may have needed rethinking, for the interpretive framework of [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[Martin Luther]], which had dominated Western Christian thinking for almost two millennia, was called into question.
−
−	~~===Agent of Rome===~~
−	[[Joseph Atwill]], in his book ''Caesar's Messiah'', among others, believe that Paul was an agent of [[Imperial Rome]] in general and of the [[Roman Emperor]]s in specific. Both state their belief that Paul was used, along with [[Josephus]], to start a peaceful [[messianic movement]] to undermine the unrest and rebelliousness of [[Iudaea Province\|Judea]]. (See also [[Bible conspiracy theory]].)
−
−	~~===The mythicist position===~~
−
−	The mythicist school of scriptural analysis is represented chiefly by [[Wells \|G. A. Wells]] and [[Earl Doherty]]. This position holds that no historical [[Jesus\|Jesus of Nazareth]] ever existed, and that the [[Gospel]] accounts are a result of merging of the mythical cosmic savior [[Christ]] religion, preached by Paul and the Jerusalem apostles, a [[Midrashic]] construction of the passion story from [[Old Testament]] passages, and the anonymous collection of wisdom sayings known as the [[Q Document]] that was in circulation in late 1st-century Galilee.
−
−	~~For Wells and Doherty, it is [[Paul\|Paul's]] silence on any biographical details about [[Jesus]] that gives the most support for their position.~~
−
−	According to this theory, therefore, the accounts about Paul in the [[Book of Acts]] are a fiction, which includes the famed Road to Damascus incident. Instead, [[Paul]] emerges either as a gnostic (see above), a preacher of Judaism with a Messianic bent, or a proponent of a [[docetic]] Christ. The position that the account of Paul in Acts is a fabrication is not, however, confined to the "mythicist" school of analysis, but shared with many scholars in the field of textual criticism, since, according to most interpretations of textual analysis, the account of Paul in Acts contradicts details that Paul himself specifies in his own epistles.

	==See also==		==See also==

@@ Line 167: / Line 167: @@
 == Legendary tradition ==
-From the mid-[[2nd century]], orally transmitted legends that had grown up about the figure of Paul were embodied in written narratives, that applied contemporary literary conventions of realism and authenticity in order to give weight to this legendary oral core. Their tradition has been characterized (MacDonald 1983) as being in competition with the Pauline [[pastoral epistles]]. The pastoral epistles were accepted into the canon, as it developed in the [[3rd century]], while the legends continued their parallel, [[apocrypha]]l career. The oral tradition was transmitted above all among women, MacDonald has asserted, and women appear more centrally in the legend than in the epistles, where they are relegated to the periphery.
+From the mid-[[2nd century]], orally transmitted legends that had grown up about the figure of Paul were embodied in written narratives, that applied contemporary literary conventions of realism and authenticity in order to give weight to this legendary oral core. Their tradition has been characterized (MacDonald 1983) as being in competition with the Pauline pastoral epistles. The pastoral epistles were accepted into the canon, as it developed in the [[3rd century]], while the legends continued their parallel, apocryphal career. The oral tradition was transmitted above all among women, MacDonald has asserted, and women appear more centrally in the legend than in the epistles, where they are relegated to the periphery.
 ==Alternative views==

@@ Line 129: / Line 129: @@
 == Writings ==
-Paul wrote a number of letters to Christian churches and individuals. However, not all have been preserved; 1 Corinthians 5:9 alludes to a previous letter he sent to the Christians in Corinth that has clearly been lost. Those letters that have survived are part of the New Testament [[Biblical_canon |canon]], where they appear in order of length, from longest to shortest. A subgroup of these letters, written from captivity, are called the "prison-letters", and tradition states they were written in Rome.
+Paul wrote a number of letters to Christian churches and individuals. However, not all have been preserved; 1 Corinthians 5:9 alludes to a previous letter he sent to the Christians in Corinth that has clearly been lost. Those letters that have survived are part of the New Testament canon, where they appear in order of length, from longest to shortest. A subgroup of these letters, written from captivity, are called the "prison-letters", and tradition states they were written in Rome.
-His possible authorship of the anonymous [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] had been questioned as early as [[Origen]]. Since at least [[1750]], a number of other letters commonly attributed to Paul have also been suspected by some of having been written by his followers in the [[1st century]].
+His possible authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews had been questioned as early as Origen. Since at least [[1750]], a number of other letters commonly attributed to Paul have also been suspected by some of having been written by his followers in the [[1st century]].
 ===The Pauline corpus===
@@ Line 154: / Line 152: @@
 *[[Second Thessalonians]]
-The [[Pastoral epistles|Pastoral epistles of Paul]] (sometimes considered a separate category; and suspected by over two-thirds of scholars not to be of Pauline authorship).
+The Pastoral epistles of Paul (sometimes considered a separate category; and suspected by over two-thirds of scholars not to be of Pauline authorship).
 *[[First Timothy]]
 *[[Second Timothy]]
@@ Line 160: / Line 158: @@
 Two further epistles attributed by some to Paul (since some of the prior epistles mention them) have been lost:
-*''Epistle to the Alexandrians'' (lost)  Nothing is known of this letter apart from a brief mention in the [[Muratorian fragment]] that claims it was a [[Marcion]]ite forgery.
+*''Epistle to the Alexandrians'' (lost)  Nothing is known of this letter apart from a brief mention in the Muratorian fragment that claims it was a Marcionite forgery.
 *''Epistle to the Macedonians'' (lost)
-The following epistles are almost universally agreed to be [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] (written by someone other than Paul who was nevertheless pretending to be him):
+The following epistles are almost universally agreed to be pseudepigraphical (written by someone other than Paul who was nevertheless pretending to be him):
-*''[[Third Corinthians]]''
+*''Third Corinthians''
-*''[[Epistle to the Laodiceans]]''
+*''Epistle to the Laodiceans''
-*The Correspondence of Paul and [[Seneca the Younger]]
+*The Correspondence of Paul and Seneca the Younger
 == Legendary tradition ==

@@ Line 115: / Line 115: @@
 == Social views ==
 Paul's writings on social issues were just as influential on the life and beliefs of Christian culture as were his doctrinal statements.
-In his letter to the [[Colossians]], Paul expounds on how a follower of Christ should live a radically different life —  using heavenly standards instead of earthly ones. These standards have highly influenced Western society for centuries. He condemns such things as impurity, lust, greed, anger, slander, filthy language, lying, and racial divisions. In the same passage, Paul extols the virtues of compassion, kindness, patience, forgiveness, love, peace, and gratitude (Col 3:1–17).
+In his letter to the Colossians, Paul expounds on how a follower of Christ should live a radically different life —  using heavenly standards instead of earthly ones. These standards have highly influenced Western society for centuries. He condemns such things as impurity, lust, greed, anger, slander, filthy language, lying, and racial divisions. In the same passage, Paul extols the virtues of compassion, kindness, patience, forgiveness, love, peace, and gratitude (Col 3:1–17).
-Paul condemned "[[sexual immorality]]", saying "Flee from sexual immorality. All other sins a man commits are outside his body, but he who sins sexually sins against his own body" (1 Cor 6:18) — based on the moral laws of the [[Old Testament]] and the [[Antithesis of the Law]] attributed to Jesus in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] (see also 1 Cor 6:9ff.; Eph 5:21–33, Col 3:1–17). Other Pauline teachings are on freedom in Christ (Gal 5; 1 Cor 8; Col 2:6–23), proper worship and church discipline (1 Cor 11), the unity of believers (1 Cor 1:10–17; Eph 4:1–6), and marriage (1 Cor 7; Eph 5:21–33). Paul advocated [[celibacy]] or [[abstinence]] for the "believer" (unless married), and warned that either marriage or separation would bring trouble if not sanctioned by God beforehand. "And I would spare you," Paul explained.
+Paul condemned "sexual immorality", saying "Flee from sexual immorality. All other sins a man commits are outside his body, but he who sins sexually sins against his own body" (1 Cor 6:18) — based on the moral laws of the Old Testament and the Antithesis of the Law attributed to Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew (see also 1 Cor 6:9ff.; Eph 5:21–33, Col 3:1–17). Other Pauline teachings are on freedom in Christ (Gal 5; 1 Cor 8; Col 2:6–23), proper worship and church discipline (1 Cor 11), the unity of believers (1 Cor 1:10–17; Eph 4:1–6), and marriage (1 Cor 7; Eph 5:21–33). Paul advocated celibacy or abstinence for the "believer" (unless married), and warned that either marriage or separation would bring trouble if not sanctioned by God beforehand. "And I would spare you," Paul explained.
-In 1 [[Corinthians|Corinthians 7:8–9]] (NRSV), he wrote: "To the unmarried and the widows I say that it is well for them to remain unmarried as I am. But if they are not practicing self-control, they should marry. For it is better to marry than to be aflame with passion." On [[divorce]], 1 Corinthians 7:10–16 (NRSV), he cited Jesus: "To the married I give this command — not I but [[the Lord]] — that the wife should not separate from her husband (but if she does separate, let her remain unmarried or else be reconciled to her husband), and that the husband should not divorce his wife" (from [[Gospel of Mark|Mark 10:11]] and parallels), but then gave his own teaching: "To the rest I say — I and not the Lord: but if the unbelieving partner separates, let it be so; [[Pauline privilege|in such a case the brother or sister is not bound]]."
+In 1 Corinthians 7:8–9 (NRSV), he wrote: "To the unmarried and the widows I say that it is well for them to remain unmarried as I am. But if they are not practicing self-control, they should marry. For it is better to marry than to be aflame with passion." On divorce, 1 Corinthians 7:10–16 (NRSV), he cited Jesus: "To the married I give this command — not I but the Lord — that the wife should not separate from her husband (but if she does separate, let her remain unmarried or else be reconciled to her husband), and that the husband should not divorce his wife" (from Mark 10:11 and parallels), but then gave his own teaching: "To the rest I say — I and not the Lord: but if the unbelieving partner separates, let it be so; [[Pauline privilege|in such a case the brother or sister is not bound]]."
-Paul may have been ambivalent towards [[slavery]], saying that pending the near return of [[Jesus]], people should focus on their faith and not on their social status (1 Cor 7:21ff.). He also instructed slaves to serve their masters faithfully (Eph 6:5ff.), and that masters should be respectful of their slaves, as "he who is both their Master and yours is in heaven, and there is no favoritism with him" (Ephesians 6:9b NIV). Due to his authority, these views have had an influence in [[Western_culture| Western]] society into modern times; Paul's apparent failure to explicitly condemn slavery in his [[Epistle to Philemon]] has sometimes been interpreted as justifying the ownership of human beings, although [[chattel slavery]] is a relatively modern phenomenon. On the other hand, some Christians interpret Paul's attempted to buy the freedom of a runaway slave, Onesimus, in Philemon, and his order to Onesimu's master to treat him "not as a slave, but instead of a slave, as a most dear brother, especially to me." (Philemon 16) as a subtle condemnation of slavery.
+Paul may have been ambivalent towards slavery, saying that pending the near return of [[Jesus]], people should focus on their faith and not on their social status (1 Cor 7:21ff.). He also instructed slaves to serve their masters faithfully (Eph 6:5ff.), and that masters should be respectful of their slaves, as "he who is both their Master and yours is in heaven, and there is no favoritism with him" (Ephesians 6:9b NIV). Due to his authority, these views have had an influence in Western society into modern times; Paul's apparent failure to explicitly condemn slavery in his Epistle to Philemon has sometimes been interpreted as justifying the ownership of human beings, although chattel slavery is a relatively modern phenomenon. On the other hand, some Christians interpret Paul's attempted to buy the freedom of a runaway slave, Onesimus, in Philemon, and his order to Onesimus' master to treat him "not as a slave, but instead of a slave, as a most dear brother, especially to me." (Philemon 16) as a subtle condemnation of slavery.
-Paul was not only establishing a new cultural awareness and a society of [[charity]], but was also [[subvert]]ing Roman authority through language and action. Paul used titles to describe Jesus that were also claimed by the Roman [[Caesar (title)|Caesars]], the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], the [[Seleucid Empire]], and [[Alexander the Great]]. [[Augustus]] had claimed the titles "Lord of Lords", "King of Kings", and Paul trumped Augustus Caesar's title "son of a god" (as he was the adopted son of [[Julius Caesar]], whom he declared to be a god) by affirming Jesus of Nazareth's claim to be "Son of God" (i.e. the "Most High God", rather than one of the pagan gods). [[Alexander the Great]] claimed to be the son of [[Zeus]] and a virgin. When Paul refers to Jesus' life as the "Good News", ''evangelion'' in [[Koine Greek]], he is using another title claimed by [[Augustus]]. Ancient Roman inscriptions had called Augustus the ''evangelon'' (good news) for Rome. Paul used these titles to expand upon the ethic of Jesus with words from and for his own place and time in history.  If Jesus is lord, then Caesar is not, and so on.  The ethic being that the Christian's life is not to be lived out of [[hope]] for what the [[Roman Empire]] could provide (legal, martial and economic advantage) or the [[Pharisee|Pharisaical]] system could provide ([[Legalism (theology)|legalistic]], self-dependent [[salvation]]), (against this view see [[E. P. Sanders]]), but out of hope in the [[Resurrection]] and promises of Jesus. The Christianity which Paul envisioned was one in which adherents lived unburdened by the norms of Roman and Jewish society to freely follow the [[promise]] of an already established but not yet fully present [[Kingdom of God]], promised by Jesus and instituted in his own Resurrection. The true "subversive" nature of Paul's ethic was not that the Church seek to subvert the Empire (vindication in full had already been promised), but that the Church not be subverted by the Empire in its wait for [[Judgment Day|Christ's return]].
+Paul was not only establishing a new cultural awareness and a society of charity, but was also subverting Roman authority through language and action. Paul used titles to describe Jesus that were also claimed by the Roman Caesars, the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], the [[Seleucid Empire]], and [[Alexander the Great]]. Augustus had claimed the titles "Lord of Lords", "King of Kings", and Paul trumped Augustus Caesar's title "son of a god" (as he was the adopted son of Julius Caesar, whom he declared to be a god) by affirming Jesus of Nazareth's claim to be "Son of God" (i.e. the "Most High God", rather than one of the pagan gods). [[Alexander the Great]] claimed to be the son of [[Zeus]] and a virgin. When Paul refers to Jesus' life as the "Good News", ''evangelion'' in [[Koine Greek]], he is using another title claimed by Augustus. Ancient Roman inscriptions had called Augustus the ''evangelon'' (good news) for Rome. Paul used these titles to expand upon the ethic of Jesus with words from and for his own place and time in history.  If Jesus is lord, then Caesar is not, and so on.  The ethic being that the Christian's life is not to be lived out of hope for what the Roman Empire could provide (legal, martial and economic advantage) or the Pharisaical system could provide (legalistic, self-dependent salvation), (against this view see E. P. Sanders), but out of hope in the Resurrection and promises of Jesus. The Christianity which Paul envisioned was one in which adherents lived unburdened by the norms of Roman and Jewish society to freely follow the promise of an already established but not yet fully present Kingdom of God, promised by Jesus and instituted in his own Resurrection. The true "subversive" nature of Paul's ethic was not that the Church seek to subvert the Empire (vindication in full had already been promised), but that the Church not be subverted by the Empire in its wait for Christ's return.
 == Writings ==

@@ Line 102: / Line 102: @@
 == Theological teachings ==
-Paul had several major impacts on the nature of Christian doctrine. The first was that of the centrality of faith within the life of Jesus, and the ability to attain [[righteousness]] through such (Rom 3:22; Gal 3:22; etc.). It was not until his later letter to the Corinthians that he alluded to the possibility of [[eternal life]], and in turn was held to [[Supersessionism|supersede]] the value of the [[Mosaic Law]] — a belief often expressed as "Jesus died for our sins" (as the spotless "[[Lamb of God]]" referred to by [[John the Baptist]] and [[John the Apostle]]). It is unclear how much of this idea is original to Paul; [[Jerome]] notes the existence in the [[4th century]] of a Christian sect in [[Syria]] called the [[Ebionites]] who still observed the Mosaic Law, thus suggesting that at least some Christians may not have believed in the salvatory qualities of the [[Passion]]. The ''[[Didache]]'' does not have this concept. The [[Ethiopian Orthodox]], who claim to be the only church free of [[Marcionism]], still observe some Mosaic Laws.<ref>[http://www.cnewa.org/ecc-bodypg.aspx?eccpageID=7&IndexView=toc The Ethiopian Orthodox Church], CNEWA.</ref> The [[Apostolic Constitutions]], generally dated around the [[3rd century]], claiming to be from the [[Council of Jerusalem]], are pro-Mosaic Law (see Acts 2.36; 6.19; 7.23). The [[Acts of the Apostles]] definitely depicts Paul as a Mosaic Law-observant Jew. For example, in Acts 15 he accepts a subset (see [[Noahide Laws]]) of the Law for new Gentile converts; in Acts 16 he ''personally'' circumcises [[Timothy]], a Greek, even though his father is Greek, because his mother is of the Jewish faith; and in Acts 21 James challenges Paul about the rumor that he is teaching rebellion against the Law. Paul goes to [[Herod's Temple]] with four [[Nazarite]] pledges to show that he is not; however, when some people from [[Asia Minor]] (Paul's home area) see him, it starts a major riot. The assumption that Paul was anti-Law (indeed that even Jesus was anti-Law) found its largest proponent in [[Marcion]] and [[Marcionism]]. However, there is some evidence suggesting that Paul's concept of [[salvation]] coming from the death of Jesus was not unique amongst early Christians; Philippians 2:5–11 expounds a [[Christology]] similar to Paul's and has long been identified as a hymn of early Christians dated as existing before Paul's letter.
+Paul had several major impacts on the nature of Christian doctrine. The first was that of the centrality of faith within the life of Jesus, and the ability to attain righteousness through such (Rom 3:22; Gal 3:22; etc.). It was not until his later letter to the Corinthians that he alluded to eternal life and in turn was held to supersede the value of the Mosaic Law — a belief often expressed as "Jesus died for our sins" (as the spotless "Lamb of God" referred to by [[John the Baptist]] and [[John the Apostle]]). The [[Acts of the Apostles]] definitely depicts Paul as a Mosaic Law-observant Jew. For example, in Acts 15 he accepts a subset (see [[Noahide Laws]]) of the Law for new Gentile converts; in Acts 16 he ''personally'' circumcises [[Timothy]], a Greek, even though his father is Greek, because his mother is of the Jewish faith; and in Acts 21 James challenges Paul about the rumor that he is teaching rebellion against the Law. Paul goes to Herod's Temple with four Nazarite pledges to show that he is not; however, when some people from [[Asia Minor]] (Paul's home area) see him, it starts a major riot. The assumption that Paul was anti-Law (indeed that even Jesus was anti-Law) found its largest proponent in Marcion and Marcionism. However, there is some evidence suggesting that Paul's concept of salvation coming from the death of Jesus was not unique amongst early Christians; Philippians 2:5–11 expounds a Christology similar to Paul's and has long been identified as a hymn of early Christians dated as existing before Paul's letter.
-This belief of eternal life leads directly to the modern argument of justification by faith vs. justification by faith and works. Most [[Protestant]] denominations assert that Paul's teachings constitute a definitive statement that salvation comes [[sola fide|only by faith]] and not by any external action of the believer. [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] theology disputes this, asserting that passages cited in Paul are being misinterpreted (as stated in 2 Pet 3:16), and that this interpretation is directly contradicted by James 2:24: "man is justified by works, and not by faith alone"(KJV).
+This belief of eternal life leads directly to the modern argument of justification by faith vs. justification by faith and works. Most Protestant denominations assert that Paul's teachings constitute a definitive statement that salvation comes only by faith and not by any external action of the believer. Roman Catholic and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] theology disputes this, asserting that passages cited in Paul are being misinterpreted (as stated in 2 Pet 3:16), and that this interpretation is directly contradicted by James 2:24: "man is justified by works, and not by faith alone"(KJV).
-Related to Paul's interpretation of the [[resurrection]] are his concepts of [[faith]], which he explains through his explanation of [[Abraham]] (see Paul's letter to the Galatians), and of [[righteousness]] and the [[forgiveness]] of [[sin]]s. [[Augustine of Hippo]] later elaborated upon this concept in his formulation of [[original sin]].
+Related to Paul's interpretation of the resurrection are his concepts of faith, which he explains through his explanation of Abraham and of righteousness and the forgiveness of sins. [[Augustine of Hippo]] later elaborated upon this concept in his formulation of original sin.
-In the [[New Testament]], the doctrine of [[original sin]] is most clearly expressed by Paul's writings. His writings also express the doctrine that salvation is not achieved by conforming to Mosaic Law, but through [[faith]] in (or the faith of) Jesus. It is claimed this [[doctrine]] was confirmed at the [[Council of Jerusalem]] (see above). Paul was also one of the first Christians to expound the doctrine of [[Christ's divine nature]].
+In the [[New Testament]], the doctrine of [[original sin]] is most clearly expressed by Paul's writings. His writings also express the doctrine that salvation is not achieved by conforming to Mosaic Law, but through faith in Jesus. It is claimed this doctrine was confirmed at the Council of Jerusalem (see above). Paul was also one of the first Christians to expound the doctrine of Christ's divine nature.
-One development clearly not original to Paul (for example, see Isa 56:6–8; Acts 10; [[proselyte]]), but for which he became a chief [[advocate]], was the conversion of non-Jews (specifically, those not [[History_of_male_circumcision#Male_Circumcision_in_the_Greco-Roman_World|circumcised]]) to Christianity. While a number of passages in the Gospels acknowledge that [[Gentiles]] might enjoy the benefits of Jesus, Paul claims to be "[[The Apostle to the Gentiles]]" —  a title that can be traced to Galatians 2:8. His [[missionary]] work amongst Gentiles helped to raise Christianity beyond its initial reputation as a dissident (if not [[heresy|heretical]]) Jewish sect (see [[Jewish Christians]]), at least with the populace, if not the Roman Imperial party (see [[Constantine the Great]]).
+One development clearly not original to Paul (for example, see Isa 56:6–8; Acts 10; proselyte), but for which he became a chief advocate, was the conversion of non-Jews (specifically, those not circumcised) to Christianity. While a number of passages in the Gospels acknowledge that Gentiles might enjoy the benefits of Jesus, Paul claims to be "The Apostle to the Gentiles" —  a title that can be traced to Galatians 2:8. His missionary work amongst Gentiles helped to raise Christianity beyond its initial reputation as a dissident (if not heretical) Jewish sect at least with the populace, if not the Roman Imperial party (see [[Constantine the Great]]).
-Paul also manifests a strong doctrine of the [[Holy Spirit]]. Much of Romans, and particularly the ending to Second Corinthians, portrays the Spirit in equality with [[God the Father]] and the [[Son of God|Son]]. These references would later take shape as the doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. Paul's notion that the Holy Spirit dwells within all believers at the time of their conversion is integral to his [[soteriology]], [[ecclesiology]], [[missiology]], and [[eschatology]]. Paul explains in his letter to the Galatians that they received the Holy Spirit because of the promises of God to Abraham (Gal 4:4-7). The apostle Paul testified to the Galatians, "If you be Christ's, then are  you Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise" (Gal 3:29 KJV).
+Paul also manifests a strong doctrine of the [[Holy Spirit]]. Much of Romans, and particularly the ending to Second Corinthians, portrays the Spirit in equality with [[God the Father]] and the [[Son of God|Son]]. These references would later take shape as the doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. Paul's notion that the Holy Spirit dwells within all believers at the time of their conversion is integral to his soteriology, ecclesiology, missiology and eschatology. Paul explains in his letter to the Galatians that they received the Holy Spirit because of the promises of God to Abraham (Gal 4:4-7). The apostle Paul testified to the Galatians, "If you be Christ's, then are  you Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise" (Gal 3:29 KJV).
 == Social views ==

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 ==Paul's trip to Rome, imprisonment and death==
-Acts describes Paul's journey from Caesarea to Rome in some detail. The centurion Julius had shipped Paul and his fellow prisoners aboard a merchant vessel, whereon [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] and [[Aristarchus (New Testament)|Aristarchus]] were able to take passage. As the season was advanced, the voyage was slow and difficult. They skirted the coasts of [[Syria]], [[Cilicia]], and [[Pamphylia]]. At [[Myra]] in [[Lycia]], the prisoners were transferred to an Alexandrian vessel transporting wheat bound for Italy. A place in [[Crete]] called Goodhavens was reached with great difficulty, and Paul advised that they should spend the winter there. His advice was not followed, and the vessel, driven by the tempest, drifted aimlessly for fourteen days and finally wrecked on the coast of [[Malta]]. The three months when navigation was considered most dangerous were spent there, where Paul healed the father of the Roman Governor [[Saint Publius|Publius]] from fever and other people who were sick. He also preached the [[gospel]] and placed Publius head of this church. With the first days of spring, all haste was made to resume the voyage.
+Acts describes Paul's journey from Caesarea to Rome in some detail. The centurion Julius had shipped Paul and his fellow prisoners aboard a merchant vessel, whereon [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] and Aristarchus were able to take passage. As the season was advanced, the voyage was slow and difficult. They skirted the coasts of Syria, Cilicia, and [[Pamphylia]]. At [[Myra]] in [[Lycia]], the prisoners were transferred to an Alexandrian vessel transporting wheat bound for Italy. A place in [[Crete]] called Goodhavens was reached with great difficulty, and Paul advised that they should spend the winter there. His advice was not followed, and the vessel, driven by the tempest, drifted aimlessly for fourteen days and finally wrecked on the coast of Malta. The three months when navigation was considered most dangerous were spent there, where Paul healed the father of the Roman Governor Publius from fever and other people who were sick. He also preached the gospel and placed Publius head of this church. With the first days of spring, all haste was made to resume the voyage.
-Acts only recounts Paul's life until he arrived in Rome, around [[61]]; and although the details are not specific, it is clear that he traveled much of the eastern Mediterranean Sea coastal area for twenty years prior (around 40 to 60), in what are often referred to as the Four Missionary Journeys.  Some argue Paul's own letters cease to furnish information about his activities long before then, although others (NIV Study Bibles, for example) date the last source of information being his second letter to Timothy, describing him languishing in a "cold dungeon" and passages indicating he knew that his life was about to come to an end.  While Paul's letters to the [[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]] and to [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]] may have been written while he was imprisoned in Rome (the traditional interpretation), they may have been written during his earlier imprisonments at Caesarea, or at Ephesus.
+Acts only recounts Paul's life until he arrived in Rome, around [[61]]; and although the details are not specific, it is clear that he traveled much of the eastern Mediterranean Sea coastal area for twenty years prior (around 40 to 60), in what are often referred to as the Four Missionary Journeys.  Some argue Paul's own letters cease to furnish information about his activities long before then, although others (NIV Study Bibles, for example) date the last source of information being his second letter to Timothy, describing him languishing in a "cold dungeon" and passages indicating he knew that his life was about to come to an end.  While Paul's letters to the Ephesians and to Philemon may have been written while he was imprisoned in Rome (the traditional interpretation), they may have been written during his earlier imprisonments at Caesarea, or at Ephesus.
-We are forced to turn to tradition for the details of Paul's final years. One tradition holds (attested as early as in ''[[Epistles of Clement|1 Clement]]'' 5:7, and in the ''[[Muratorian fragment]]'') that Paul visited [[Spain]] and [[Great Britain]].  While this was his intention (Rom 15:22–7), the evidence is inconclusive. Another tradition places his death in Rome. [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Nero]]. This event has been dated either to the year [[64]], when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to [[67]]. One Gaius, who wrote during the time of [[Pope Zephyrinus]], mentions Paul's tomb as standing on the ''[[Via Ostensis]]''. While there is little evidence to support any of these traditions, there is no evidence contradicting them, and no alternative traditions of Paul's eventual fate. It is commonly accepted that Paul died as a [[martyr]] in [[Rome]].  According to [[Bede]] in ''Ecclesiastical History'' from [[Vatican library]] sources, his mortal remains were given to [[Oswiu of Northumbria|Oswy]], [[British monarchy|King of Great Britain]], by [[Pope Vitalian]] in 665.
+We are forced to turn to tradition for the details of Paul's final years. One tradition holds (attested as early as in ''1 Clement'' 5:7, and in the ''Muratorian fragment'') that Paul visited Spain and Great Britain.  While this was his intention (Rom 15:22–7), the evidence is inconclusive. Another tradition places his death in Rome. Eusebius of Caesarea states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. This event has been dated either to the year [[64]], when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to [[67]]. One Gaius, who wrote during the time of Pope Zephyrinus, mentions Paul's tomb as standing on the ''Via Ostensis''. While there is little evidence to support any of these traditions, there is no evidence contradicting them, and no alternative traditions of Paul's eventual fate. It is commonly accepted that Paul died as a martyr in Rome.  According to Bede in ''Ecclesiastical History'' from Vatican library sources, his mortal remains were given to Oswiu , King of Great Britain, by Pope Vitalian in 665.
 == Theological teachings ==

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 === Arrest, Rome, and later life ===
-Upon Paul's arrival in Jerusalem with the relief funds requested at the Council of Jerusalem (Gal 2:10), Paul was recognized outside the Jewish Temple and was nearly beaten to death by a mob, which supposed that Paul had brought his traveling companion (a Greek) into the Temple, thus "defiling" it. After Paul's subsequent rescue by the Roman guard and Paul's imprisonment, Ananias the High Priest made accusations against Paul that resulted in his continued imprisonment awaiting various trials (Acts 24:1–5). Paul claimed his right as a Roman citizen to be tried in Rome; but owing to the inaction of the governor Antonius Felix, Paul languished in confinement at Caesarea Palaestina for two years until a new governor, Porcius Festus, took office, held a hearing, and sent Paul by sea to [[Rome]], where he spent another two years in detention (Acts 28:30).
+Upon Paul's arrival in Jerusalem with the relief funds requested at the Council of Jerusalem (Gal 2:10), Paul was recognized outside the Jewish Temple and was nearly beaten to death by a mob, which supposed that Paul had brought his traveling companion (a Greek) into the Temple, thus "defiling" it. After Paul's subsequent rescue by the Roman guard and Paul's imprisonment, Ananias the High Priest made accusations against Paul that resulted in his continued imprisonment awaiting various trials (Acts 24:1–5). Paul claimed his right as a Roman citizen to be tried in Rome; but owing to the inaction of the governor Antonius Felix, Paul languished in confinement at Caesarea Palaestina for two years until a new governor, Porcius Festus, took office, held a hearing, and sent Paul by sea to Rome, where he spent another two years in detention (Acts 28:30).
 ==Paul's trip to Rome, imprisonment and death==

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 === Founding of churches ===
-Paul spent the next few years traveling through western [[Asia Minor]] — this time entering [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] — and founded his first Christian church in [[Philippi]], where he encountered harassment. Paul himself tersely describes his experience as "when we suffered and were shamefully treated" (1 Thess 2:2 KJV); the author of Acts, perhaps drawing from a witness (this passage follows closely on one of the "we passages"), explains here that Paul [[exorcise]]d a spirit from a female slave, ending her ability to [[fortune-telling|tell fortunes]] and reducing her value — an act the slave's owner claimed was "theft"; wherefore he had Paul briefly sent to prison (Acts 16:22). Paul then traveled along the [[Via Egnatia]] to [[Thessalonica]], where he stayed for some time before departing for [[Greece]]. First he came to [[Athens]], where he gave his legendary speech in ''[[Areios Pagos]]'' and said he was talking in the name of the "[[Unknown God]]" who was already worshipped there (17:16–34); then he traveled to [[Corinth]], where he settled for three years and wrote [[First Thessalonians]], the earliest of his surviving letters.
+Paul spent the next few years traveling through western [[Asia Minor]] — this time entering [[Macedonia]] — and founded his first Christian church in [[Philippi]], where he encountered harassment. Paul himself tersely describes his experience as "when we suffered and were shamefully treated" (1 Thess 2:2 KJV); the author of Acts, perhaps drawing from a witness (this passage follows closely on one of the "we passages"), explains here that Paul exorcised a spirit from a female slave, ending her ability to [[fortune-telling|tell fortunes]] and reducing her value — an act the slave's owner claimed was "theft"; wherefore he had Paul briefly sent to prison (Acts 16:22). Paul then traveled along the [[Via Egnatia]] to [[Thessalonica]], where he stayed for some time before departing for [[Greece]]. First he came to [[Athens]], where he gave his legendary speech in ''[[Areios Pagos]]'' and said he was talking in the name of the "[[Unknown God]]" who was already worshipped there (17:16–34); then he traveled to [[Corinth]], where he settled for three years and wrote First Thessalonians, the earliest of his surviving letters.
-Again he ran into legal trouble in Corinth: on the complaints of a group of Jews, he was brought before the [[proconsul]] [[Gallio]], who decided that it was a minor matter not worth his attention and dismissed the charges (Acts 18:12–16). From an inscription in [[Delphi]] that mentions Gallio, we are able to securely date this hearing as having occurred in the year [[52]], which aids in an accurate chronology of Paul's life.
+Again he ran into legal trouble in Corinth: on the complaints of a group of Jews, he was brought before the proconsul Gallio, who decided that it was a minor matter not worth his attention and dismissed the charges (Acts 18:12–16). From an inscription in [[Delphi]] that mentions Gallio, we are able to securely date this hearing as having occurred in the year [[52]], which aids in an accurate chronology of Paul's life.
 Following this hearing, Paul continued his preaching (usually called his [[Third Missionary Journey]]), traveling again through Asia Minor and Macedonia, to Antioch and back. He caused a great uproar in the theatre in [[Ephesus]], where local silversmiths feared loss of income due to Paul's activities. Their income relied on the sale of silver statues of the goddess [[Artemis]], whom they worshipped; and the resulting mob almost killed him (Acts 19:21–41) and his companions.  Later, as Paul was passing near Ephesus on his way to Jerusalem, Paul chose not to stop, since he was in haste to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost.  The church here, however, was so highly regarded by Paul that he called the elders to Miletus to meet with him (Acts 20:16–38).